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"binding Europe to North America after World War II in the context of the Cold War Atlanticism, also known as Transatlanticism, is the belief in or support for a close relationship between the United States and Canada, on one hand, and European countries (originally Western, Central and Southern European democracies, later additional Central and Eastern European democracies, other than Russia) on the other hand, regarding political, economic, and defence issues, in the belief that it would maintain the security and prosperity of the participating countries and protect the perceived values that unite them. The term derives from the Atlantic Ocean that separates North America from Europe. The term can be used in a more limited way to imply support for North Atlantic military alliances or in a more expansive way implying broader cooperation, perceived deeply shared values, a merging of diplomatic cultures,Weisbrode, Kenneth. The Atlanticists.'' Nortia Press, 2017. and a sense of community and some degree of integration between North America and Europe. In practice, the philosophy of Atlanticism encourages active North American, particularly American, engagement in Europe and close cooperation between states on both sides of the ocean. Atlanticism manifested itself most strongly during the Second World War and in its aftermath, the Cold War, through the establishment of various euro-Atlantic institutions, most importantly NATO and the Marshall Plan. Atlanticism varies in strength from region to region and country to country based on a variety of historical and cultural factors. It is often considered to be particularly strong in eastern and central Europe and the United Kingdom (linked to the Special Relationship). Politically, it has tended to be associated most heavily and enthusiastically, but certainly not exclusively, with classical liberals or the political right in Europe. Atlanticism often implies an affinity for American political or social culture (or affinity for Europe in America) as well as the historical bonds between the two continents. There is some tension between Atlanticism and continentalism on both sides of the Atlantic, with some people emphasising increased regional cooperation or integration over trans-Atlantic cooperation. However, the relationship between Atlanticism and North American or European integration is complex, and they are not seen in direct opposition to one another by many commentators. Internationalism is the foreign policy belief combining both Atlanticism and continentalism. The relative decline of European power in the world, the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the spread of Atlanticist norms outside of the North Atlantic region have decreased the strength of Atlanticist thought since the end of the Cold War. Other international relationships have been increasingly emphasised, although the trans-Atlantic relationship is still arguably the most important in the world. History Ronald Reagan speaking in Berlin, 1987 ("Tear down this wall!") with Helmut Kohl, Chancellor of Germany. Reagan was a committed Atlanticist.Prior to the World Wars, western European countries were generally preoccupied with continental concerns and creating colonial empires in Africa and Asia, and not relations with North America. Likewise, the United States was busy with domestic issues and interventions in Latin America, but had little interest in European affairs, and Canada, despite gaining self- governing dominion status through Confederation in 1867, had yet to exercise full foreign policy independence as a part of the British Empire. The experience of having American and Canadian troops fighting with British, French, and other Europeans in Europe during the World Wars fundamentally changed this situation. Though the US (and to some extent Canada) adopted a more isolationist position between the wars, by the time of the Normandy landings the Allies were well integrated on all policies. The Atlantic Charter of 1941 declared by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill established the goals of the Allies for the post- war world, and was later adopted by all the Western allies. Following the Second World War, the Western European countries were anxious to convince the US to remain engaged in European affairs to deter any possible aggression by the Soviet Union. This led to the 1949 North Atlantic Treaty which established the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the main institutional consequence of Atlanticism, which binds all members to defend the others, and led to the long-term garrisoning of American and Canadian troops in Western Europe. After the end of the Cold War, the relationship between the United States and Europe changed fundamentally, and made both sides less-interested in the other. Without the threat of the Soviet Union dominating Europe, the continent became much less of a military priority for the US, and likewise, Europe no longer felt as much need for military protection from the US. As a result, the relationship lost much of its strategic importance. However, the new democracies of the former Warsaw Pact, and most of the fragments of the fractured Yugoslavia, took a different view, eagerly embracing Atlanticism, as a bulwark against their continued fear of the Soviet Union's key now-separate superpower fragment: Russia.Asmus, Ronald D. and Alexandr Vondra: "The Origins of Atlanticism in Central and Eastern Europe," July, 2005 Cambridge Review of International Affairs Volume 18, Number 2, Centre of International Studies, ISSN 0955-7571 print / ISSN 1474-449X, retrieved June 8, 2020 from Pittsburg State University.Schmitz-Robinson, Elizabeth: "Kindred Spirit or Opportunistic Ally? Polish Atlanticism in the 21st Century,", Claremont-UC Undergraduate Research Conference on the European Union (2009) : Vol. 2009, Article 12. DOI: 10.5642/urceu.200901. Atlanticism has undergone significant changes in the 21st century in light of terrorism and the Iraq War, the net effect being a renewed questioning of the idea itself and a new insight that the security of the respective countries may require alliance action outside the North Atlantic territory. After the September 11, 2001, attacks, NATO for the first time invoked Article 5,North Atlantic Council. "Statement by the North Atlantic Council," 2001-10-12. Retrieved on 2007-10-13 which states that any attack on a member state will be considered an attack against the entire group of members. Planes of NATO's multi-national AWACS unit patrolled the U.S. skiesSchmitt, Eric. "NATO Planes to End Patrol of U.S. Skies," New York Times, 2002-05-02. Retrieved on 2007-10-13. and European countries deployed personnel and equipment.NATO, "Statement to the Press, by NATO Secretary General, Lord Robertson," 2001-10-04. Retrieved on 2007-10-13 However, the Iraq War caused fissures within NATO and the sharp difference of opinion between the US-led backers of the invasion and opponents strained the alliance. Some commentators, such as Robert Kagan and Ivo Daalder questioned whether Europe and the United States had diverged to such a degree that their alliance was no longer relevant.Daalder, Ivo H.: "The End of Atlanticism," June 1, 2003, Brookings Institution, retrieved June 8, 2020 Ideology Atlanticism is a belief in the necessity of cooperation between North America and Europe. The term can imply a belief that the bilateral relationship between Europe and the United States is important above all others, including intra-European cooperation, especially when it comes to security issues. The term can also be used "as a shorthand for the transatlantic security architecture." Supranational integration of the North Atlantic area had emerged as a focus of thinking among intellectuals on both sides of the Atlantic already in the late 19th century. Although it was not known as Atlanticism at the time (the term was coined in 1950), they developed an approach coupling soft and hard power which would to some extent integrate the two sides of the Atlantic. The idea of an attractive "nucleus" union was the greatest soft power element; the empirical fact of the hegemonic global strength such a union would hold was the hard power element. This approach was eventually implemented to a certain degree in the form of NATO, the G7 grouping and other Atlanticist institutions. In the long debate between Atlanticism and its critics in the 20th century, the main argument was whether deep and formal Atlantic integration would serve to attract those still outside to seek to join, as Atlanticists argued, or alienate the rest of the world and drive them into opposite alliances. Realists, neutralists, and pacifists, nationalists and globalists tended to believe it would do the latter, citing the Warsaw Pact as the proof of their views and treating it as the inevitable realpolitik counterpart of NATO. Broadly speaking, Atlanticism is particularly strong in Britain (linked to the Special Relationship) and eastern and central Europe (i.e. the area between Germany and Russia). There are numerous reasons for its strength in Eastern Europe, primarily the role of the United States in bringing political freedom there after the First World War, the role of the US in defeating Nazi Germany (which occupied the region) during the Second World War, its leading role during the Cold War, its relative enthusiasm for bringing the countries of the region into Atlanticist institutions such as NATO, and a suspicion of the intentions of the major Western European powers. Countries such as Denmark, Poland, Romania, and the United Kingdom are among those who generally hold strong Atlanticist views, while Germany tends to promote continentalist views and a strong European Union."The new kids on the block," The Economist, 2007-01-04. Retrieved 2007-10-14. Quote: "Romania, under its president, Traian Basescu, is a bastion of Atlanticism in the Black Sea region." In the early 21st century, Atlanticism has tended to be slightly stronger on the political right in Europe (although many variations do exist from country to country), but on the political center-left in the United States. The partisan division should not be overstated, but it exists and has grown since the end of the Cold War. While trans-Atlantic trade and political ties have remained mostly strong throughout the Cold War and beyond, the larger trend has been continentalist economic integration with the European Union (and its regional partners) and the North American Free Trade Agreement notably dividing the Atlantic region into two rival trade blocs. However, many political actors and commentators do not see the two processes as being necessarily opposed to one another, in fact some commentators believe regional integration can reinforce Atlanticism. Article 2 of the North Atlantic Treaty, added by Canada, also attempted to bind the nations together on economic and political fronts. Institutions The North Atlantic Council is the premier, governmental forum for discussion and decision-making in an Atlanticist context. Other organizations that can be considered Atlanticist in origin: * NATO * Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) * G-6/7/8 * North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) * Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) The World Bank and International Monetary Fund are also considered Atlanticist. Under a tacit agreement, the former is led by an American and the latter European. Prominent Atlanticists Well-known Atlanticists include former U.S. Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry Truman, and Ronald Reagan; U.K. Prime Ministers Winston Churchill, Margaret Thatcher, Tony Blair, and Gordon Brown; former U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson; former Assistant Secretary of War and perennial presidential advisor John J. McCloy; former U.S. National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski; and former NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana. See also *Transatlantic relations *United States–European Union relations *Special Relationship *Western World *North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) *Mid-Atlantic English *Transatlantic Free Trade Area (TAFTA) *Eurasianism *German Marshall Fund, an Atlanticist think tank. *Atlantik-Brücke, a German-American non- profit association and Atlanticist think tank *Atlantic Council, an Atlanticist think tank *Streit Council, an Atlanticist think tank *Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe *Bilderberg Group *British-American Project *Pacificism * Columbian Exchange References Political theories International relations theory Politics of NATO "
"Renfrew is a town on the Bonnechere River in Renfrew County, Ontario, Canada. Located one hour west of Ottawa in Eastern Ontario, Renfrew is the third largest town in the county after Petawawa and Pembroke. The town is a small transportation hub connecting Highway 60 and Highway 132 with the Trans-Canada Highway. Renfrew is also known historically for its role in the formation of the National Hockey League. It lies about 5 kilometres from the Quebec border, about 10 kilometres by road. Renfrew makes most of Canada’s hockey tape. History Named after Renfrewshire, Scotland, in approximately 1848, Renfrew was settled largely in part due to logging in the area in the early 19th century, where the river was used in order to drive the lumber to locations such as Ottawa. This heritage was until recently celebrated every July with the Lumber Baron Festival. Geography Renfrew and the surrounding Township of Horton are at the intersection of the Bonnechere River and the Ottawa River in the Ottawa Valley. Renfrew is at the intersection of provincial Highway 17, Highway 60, and Highway 132. Climate Renfrew has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with four distinct seasons, warm summers, cold snowy winters and no dry season. Demographics Population:Statistics Canada: 1996, 2001, 2006 census First Language: * English: 91.8% * French: 4.0% * English and French: 0.5% * Other: 3.7% Economy Historic Customs Building, now Renfrew's Post Office Much of Renfrew's current prosperity can be attributed to its status as an economic centre for a surrounding rural region with a population of over 30,000. Renfrew is also an important stop for Ottawa-based cottagers and outdoor enthusiasts passing by on their way to nearby whitewater rafting, boating, camping, hunting, golfing, fishing, snowmobiling, down-hill skiing, and cross-country skiing. However, the area's largest single employers are the Renfrew Victoria Hospital and the Bonnechere Manor.Renfrew County Fact Sheet – Renfrew In addition to numerous small employers, there are also several manufacturing facilities employing several hundred people; Scapa Tapes Renfrew (formerly Renfrew Tape) makes products such as hockey tape that is used across North America and the duct tape brand featured on the discontinued Red Green Show and promoted by Doug Gilmour in the early 1990s after becoming a member of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Times Fibre Canada and Madawaska Hardwood Flooring also have manufacturing facilities in town. Haley Industries located outside Renfrew near Haley Station is also a major employer in the area. Renfrew is also home to many successful small businesses. Between 2000 and 2005, a major portion of Renfrew's retail business, and the associated customer services jobs, shifted from the west-end Renfrew mall (now demolished) to its east-end industrial park near Highway 17 due to the opening of several major big-box such as No Frills and Walmart and smaller retail stores. Residents of the area await the twinning of Highway 17 to improve traffic flow and the safety of the highway due to numerous accidents along the corridor to North Bay, Ontario. Despite the apparent prosperity, Statistics Canada reported the average earnings of Renfrew residents in 2000 as $35,811, or roughly 31% lower than the provincial average and 5% lower than the county average.Statistics Canada Community Profile - Renfrew - 2001 Further, the town reports, relative to the population size and compared to the province as a whole, fewer positions in management, business, finance, administration and natural or applied sciences, while there was greater than the provincial rates of occupation in sales and service, trades, transport and equipment operators, processing, manufacturing and utilities. Education=Renfrew County Catholic District School Board= Primary Schools (Grade K-7) * St. Thomas The Apostle Catholic School - Located at 41 Bolger Lane. * Our Lady of Fatima Catholic School - Located at 228 Mason Avenue. Secondary School (Grade 8-12) * St. Joseph's Catholic High School - Located at 835 First Street. =Renfrew County District School Board= Primary Schools (Grade K-6) * Admaston Public School - Built in 1967, this 7 classroom, 1665 square meter school is located on 3.55 hectares of land at 182 Stone Road. * Central Public School - This 9 classroom school, built in 1960, is located at 140 Munroe Avenue East on 2.43 hectares of land and is 2813 square meters in size. * Queen Elizabeth Public School - Located at 100 Veterans' Memorial Boulevard on 3 hectares of land, this 3169.1 square meter with 16 classrooms, was built in 1949. Middle School (Grade 7-8) * Renfrew Collegiate Intermediate School - Built in 1922 at 184 Bonnechere Street South, this 12,471.1 square meter building on 1.47 hectares of land shares 678 square meters, 9 classrooms, of the building with the Renfrew Collegiate Institute. Secondary School (Grade 9-12) * Renfrew Collegiate Institute, located 184 Bonnechere Street South, was built in 1922. On 1.47 hectares of land, this 12,471.1 square meter building shares 19 classrooms and 11,793.1 square meters of the building with the Renfrew Collegiate Intermediate School. Famous residents *Lorne Anderson, NHL hockey player *Bill Brydge, NHL hockey player *Ryan Coughlin, CFL football player *Kinga Czigány-MacAskill, Hungarian Olympic gold medalist in K-4 500m at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona *Robertson Davies, famous Canadian writer of Fifth Business, who spent his early years (from age 5 onwards) growing up in Renfrew. His family had moved to the town from Thamesville, Ontario, and later moved to Kingston, Ontario. His novel “What’s Bred in the Bone” was based on the town. *W. H. Davies, famous Welsh "tramp-poet", who lost his foot trying to jump a freight train at Renfrew on the evening of March 20, 1899. He was subsequently cared for at the local hospital, to which he was forever indebted. *Jack Fraser, NHA player. *Christine Hough *"Terrible" Ted Lindsay, NHL hockey player, Hockey Hall of Fame inductee *Hon. Thomas A. Low, Canadian Member of Parliament and Senator. *John Lorn McDougall Sr., fur trader, grist mill operator (McDougall Mill Museum) and member of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada. *Ambrose O'Brien, NHA player. *M.J. O'Brien, businessman and Canadian Senator. *Jim Peplinski, NHL hockey player *Alexander Lett Spence (b. 1914 in Renfrew), awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for bravery during World War II, as member of the 434 Squadron.434 Squadron, Honors and Awards, citing Spence's Distinguished Flying Cross citation. Retrieved 2013-02-12. Also father of musician Alexander Lee Spence, professionally known as Skip Spence. *Charlotte Whitton, later mayor of Ottawa, Ontario Festivals * Renfrew was the annual host and sponsor of the Ottawa Valley Lumber Baron Festival, a celebration of the town's roots in the logging industry. The Lumber Baron Festival is now known as Valleyfest, dropping its historical roots. * The Renfrew Fair has been drawing mixed crowds for decades with its mid-way rides, exhibits, demolition derby, musical acts and livestock showcase. The fair takes place on the second weekend of every September and lasts from Wednesday afternoon through Sunday afternoon. The rides are supplied by the company Carter Shows. * There is a nearby Blue Grass music festival that takes place every year in the middle of July. *In 2008, Renfrew celebrated its sesquicentennial throughout the calendar year. Landmarks=Low Square= Cenotaph located in Low Square Low Square is located on Raglan Street in downtown Renfrew. The square is a park setting containing the cenotaph, and the Town Hall. The land was donated by the Honourable Thomas Low as a gift to the city for the purpose of constructing a cenotaph to honour local soldiers who died in The Great War. The Renfrew Police station (later the OPP detachment) was built on the back of the square in 1972, with a new town hall constructed in the 1980s. The police moved out of this building in February 2017 to a new location at 450 O'Brien Road. =McDougall Mill Museum= The McDougall Mill Museum on the Bonnechere River John Lorn McDougall, politician and fur trader, built the mill in 1855 by the Bonnechere River near the town landmark Swinging Bridge and overlooking natural rapids below the Renfrew Power Generation generating station. It has been converted into a museum, sometimes referred to as 'Renfrew Museum', not to be confused with museums of that name in Pennsylvania and Scotland. The McDougall Mill Museum houses pioneer tools and machinery, a military section, a doll exhibit, as well as toys, Victorian clothing and household items.Ottawa Valley Guide: McDougall Mill. Retrieved 21 August 2007. =Swinging Bridge= Renfrew Fire Department In 1885, the W.H. Kearney family built a wire bridge across the Bonnechere River. The “swinging bridge”, now a town landmark made of wood and cable, is far safer and more secure than the original plank and wire structure. Swinging Bridge over the Bonnechere River, Renfrew, OntarioReconstructed in 1983 by the Town of Renfrew and updated in 2015, it is one of three swinging bridges in Canada and provides an excellent view of the Bonnechere River and the power generation plant. Media * The Renfrew Mercury was first published in 1871 by W.E. Smallfield and Sons, who owned the newspaper until 1919. It has passed through several ownerships over the years, operated since October 2005 by Metroland. The group, dubbed Ottawa Region Media Group, publishes 15 community papers in 16 markets. * My FM (external link) * TVCogeco * CJHR-FM 98.7, Valley Heritage Radio (external link) * The O'Brien Theatre opened on June 25, 1930, and was owned and operated by Ottawa Valley Amusements, Renfrew entrepreneur M. J. O'Brien. The opening movie, Sally, was a comedy starring Marilyn Miller. Admission for adults was 45 cents and for children it was 20 cents. The elegantly decorated town landmark was converted from a live theatre to a movie theatre and 1990s upgrades modified the balcony to accommodate a second screen. The building still maintaining much of the original appeal, reopened after extensive renovations, on January 7, 1994 with Mrs. Doubtfire, starring Robin Williams. Services=Churches= Trinity St. Andrew's United Church St. Francis Xavier Catholic Church * Calvary Pentecostal Church * Christian Reformed Church * Our Lady of Fatima * Parkview Free Methodist Church * Renfrew Baptist Church * Renfrew & District Ministerial Association * Renfrew Presbyterian Church * Salvation Army * St. Francis Xavier Roman Catholic Church * St. James Lutheran Church * St. Paul's Anglican Church * Trinity St. Andrew's United Church =Health Care Facilities= * Bonnechere Manor * Chartwell Quail Creek Retirement Residence * Hospice Renfrew Inc. * Miramachi Lodge * Renfrew Victoria Hospital opened in 1897, having 12 beds for contagious disease. By 1912, bed capacity rose to 30 and the Renfrew Victoria Hospital became a Public General Hospital. In January 1926, a tragic fire destroyed the original building, which was replaced by a new 50 bed hospital later that year. The Hospital was under Municipal ownership until 1961 when a special act of parliament transferred it from civic authority to an independent corporation known as the Board of Governors, composed of representatives from the Town of Renfrew and surrounding Townships. In October 1963, the hospital grew to 101 treatment beds after a major building and renovation program. In November 1978 another renovation project took place which was completed in April 1980. A new Dialysis Unit serving Renfrew County was completed in 1994, able to accommodate the needs of 48 patients. This Unit was again expanded in 1999 with an addition to the Hospital. In November 2001, a new Emergency/Ambulatory Care wing was opened, adding 13,000 square feet to the existing hospital, then in March 2015 a 23,000 square foot Nephrology Centre was completed. This consolidated every aspect of patient's care for kidneys - education, clinics and treatment - in the same area of the hospital. The Victoria Hospital School of Nursing opened in 1902 with a capacity of 30 students, graduating 10 students per year. Nursing education moved under the jurisdiction of community colleges and the school was subsequently closed in 1965. =Policing= The Town of Renfrew is policed by the Ontario Provincial Police force. Chief Bernard "Barney" McDermott had the job as Chief of Police in Renfrew from 1890 until his retirement in 1909 - he was a one man police force and was known to always "get his man". His living quarters were situated above the fire hall in Renfrew. The Renfrew Police station (later the OPP detachment) was built on the back of Low Square in 1972. The OPP operated out of their Stewart Street location from 1967 until moving into the Low Square detachment when the Town of Renfrew police service amalgamated with the OPP in 2000. The Renfrew and Arnprior detachments, who both faced the same fate of losing their own town operated forces, had their OPP detachments amalgamated in January 2013, and in February 2017, a new regional detachment was opened at 450 O'Brien Road in Renfrew. This new Renfrew detachment serves the towns of Arnprior, Renfrew, and the townships of Greater Madawaska, McNab-Braeside, Admaston-Bromley, Horton and about half of Whitewater Region Township. =Public Library= The Renfrew Public Library had rather simple beginnings; a group of residents discussing the latest philosophies and varied topics in William Dickson's cobbler shop which opened up in 1845 near the current location of the post office. After gathering up a few books in 1852, Mr. Dickson, Mr. Archie Thompson, and local lawyer, Mr. Elkanah Billings formed the Renfrew Mechanics Institute and Library Association, which lasted for about fifteen years before being revitalized in 1870 by a new group of people. By the end of the century, the Institute emerged as a newly formed Public Library Board and the books were moved to the Barnet Block at 282 Raglan Street, above what was James Clark's drugstore. The current building located at 13 Railway Avenue, was opened in 1920 with financial support from the Carnegie Institute, and in 1959, the Children's Library was established in the completely renovated basement. In the 1980s, the library became wheelchair accessible by an addition at the east and south side of the building, which also expanded the research and reading area into the second floor of the adjacent building at 161 Raglan Street. Sports=Facilities= The town's main sports complex, Ma-te-way Centre was built in 1989 replacing the ageing Renfrew Arena. =Golf= The Renfrew Golf Club was founded in 1929, as nine holes, and was expanded to 18 holes in the mid-1970s. =Hockey= One of the four original teams in the National Hockey Association, the precursor to the NHL, was based in Renfrew. The Renfrew Creamery Kings sought to be allowed to play in the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association, but with no success. The team's owner, M. J. O'Brien, eventually financed and put together his own league, the NHA. The Creamery Kings played two seasons of hockey in the NHA, 1911 and 1912, until M. J. O'Brien pulled out to pursue his interests in the railway. Renfrew Timberwolves is the town's hockey team since 1987, but the team can trace its roots back to 1968 as the Renfrew Lions or Renfrew Junior Timberwolves. The current team plays in the Central Canada Hockey League Tier 2. See also * Michael John O'Brien * Renfrew Millionaires *List of townships in Ontario References Further reading *The Story of Renfrew. From the Coming of the First Settlers about 1820 to 1928. By W. E. Smallfield, Rev. Robert Campbell, D.Sc., William Smallfield, Lower- tier municipalities in Ontario Municipalities in Renfrew County Towns in Ontario "
"Remains of V-3 in Zalesie near Misdroy, Wolin Island, Poland (2008) The V-3 (, "Retribution Weapon 3") was a German World War II large-caliber gun working on the multi-charge principle whereby secondary propellant charges are fired to add velocity to a projectile. The weapon was planned to be used to bombard London from two large bunkers in the Pas-de-Calais region of northern France, but they were rendered unusable by Allied bombing raids before completion. Two similar guns were used to bombard Luxembourg from December 1944 to February 1945. The V-3 was also known as the Hochdruckpumpe ("High Pressure Pump," HDP for short), which was a code name intended to hide the real purpose of the project. It was also known as Fleißiges Lieschen ("Busy Lizzie"). (bottom of page) Description The gun used multiple propellant charges placed along the barrel's length and timed to fire as soon as the projectile passed them in order to provide an additional boost. Solid-fuel rocket boosters were used instead of explosive charges because of their greater suitability and ease of use. These were arranged in symmetrical pairs along the length of the barrel, angled to project their thrust against the base of the projectile as it passed. This layout spawned the German codename Tausendfüßler ("millipede"). The barrel and side chambers were designed as identical sections to simplify production and allow damaged sections to be replaced. The entire gun would use multiple such sections bolted together. The smoothbore gun fired a fin- stabilized shell that depended upon aerodynamic forces rather than gyroscopic forces to prevent tumbling (distinct from conventional rifled weapons which cause the projectile to spin); this resulted in a lower drag coefficient. Background The origin of the multi-chamber gun dates back to the 19th century. In 1857, U.S. inventor Azel Storrs Lyman (1815–1885) was granted a patent on "Improvement in accelerating fire-arms", and he built a prototype in 1860 which proved to be unsuccessful. Lyman then modified the design in collaboration with James Richard Haskell, who had been working for years on the same principle. Haskell and Lyman reasoned that subsidiary propellant charges could increase the muzzle velocity of a projectile if the charges were spaced at intervals along the barrel of a gun in side chambers and ignited an instant after a shell had passed them. The "Lyman-Haskell multi-charge gun" was constructed on the instructions of the U.S. Army's Chief of Ordnance, but it did not resemble a conventional artillery piece. The barrel was so long that it had to be placed on an inclined ramp, and it had pairs of chambers angled back at 45 degrees discharging into it. It was test fired at the Frankford Arsenal at Philadelphia in 1880 and was unsuccessful. The flash from the original propellant charge bypassed the projectile due to faulty obturation and prematurely ignited the subsidiary charges before the shell passed them, slowing the shell down. The best velocity that could be obtained from it was , inferior to the performance of a conventional RBL 7 inch Armstrong gun of the same period. New prototypes of multi-charge guns were built and tested, but Lyman and Haskell abandoned the idea. During the same period, French engineer Louis-Guillaume Perreaux, one of the pioneers of the motorcycle, had been working on a similar project since before 1860. Perreaux was granted a patent in 1864 for a multi-chamber gun. In 1878, Perreaux presented his invention at the World Exhibition of Paris. Development In 1918, the French Army made plans for a very long range multi-chamber gun in response to the German Paris Gun. The Paris Gun was built by Friedrich Krupp AG and could bombard Paris from German lines over a distance of no less than . The French initiative did not reach the prototype stage, as it was discontinued when the retreat of the German armies and the armistice put an end to the bombardment. The plans for the multi-chamber gun were archived, as they had been envisioned to counter the German fire.In 1938, a Czech named Tugendhat rediscovered the concept and tried to sell his "Multiplex Gun" proposal to the British, but they turned him down. (). France collapsed in June 1940 at the beginning of World War II, and German troops acquired the plans of this long-range gun. In 1942, this patent attracted the attention of August Cönders,August Cönders is often incorrectly considered the inventor of the multi-chamber gun. developer of the Röchling shell and chief engineer of the plants "Röchling Stahlwerk AG" in Wetzlar, Germany. Cönders thought that the gradual acceleration of the shell by a series of small charges spread over the length of the barrel might be the solution to the problem of designing very long range guns. The very strong explosive charge needed to project shells at a high speed was causing very rapid degradation of the gun tubes of conventional guns.For example, in 1918, the tube of the Paris Gun needed to be changed after only 65 shots. Moreover, the shells had to be made in progressively larger diameter to compensate for wear of the tube, and were numbered from 1 to 65 to be used in the correct order. () Cönders proposed the use of electrically activated charges to eliminate the problem of the premature ignition of the subsidiary charges, the problem experienced by the Lyman-Haskell gun. Cönders built a prototype of a 20 mm multi-chamber gun using machinery readily available at the Wetzlar plant, machinery that was producing tubes of this calibre for the Flak 38 anti-aircraft guns of 20 mm. The first tests were encouraging, but to get the support of the Ministry of arms, Hermann Röchling had to present to Albert Speer Cönders' project of a cannon capable of firing on London from the coast of the Pas-de-Calais. The project intended to use two batteries to crush London under a barrage of hundreds of shells per hour, shells of with an explosive charge of . Speer told Adolf Hitler about the proposal in May 1943. After the Royal Air Force (RAF) bombed the Peenemünde rocket center on 17 August, Hitler agreed to Speer's suggestion that the gun be built without more tests. Cönders constructed a full-calibre gun at the Hillersleben proving ground near Magdeburg but, by the end of 1943, he had encountered severe problems both in putting the gun's basic principle into operation and in producing a feasible design for the shells that it was to fire. Even when everything worked, the muzzle velocity was just over , which was nowhere near what had been promised. Nonetheless, a proposal was made to build a single full-sized gun with a barrel at Misdroy on the Baltic island of Wolin, near Peenemünde, while construction went ahead at the Mimoyecques site in France (which had already been attacked by the USAAF and the RAF). The Heereswaffenamt (Weapon Procurement Office) took control of the project by March 1944, with no good news from Misdroy, and Cönders became one of the engineers working on the three chief problems: projectile design, obturation, and ignition of the secondary charges. Two US Army soldiers with a captured Sprenggranate 4481 projectile, which would have been fired from the V-3 at a rate of 1 every 6 seconds. Six different companies produced satisfactory designs for projectiles, including Krupp and Škoda Works. Obturation problems were solved by placing a sealing piston between the projectile and the initial propellant charge, which in turn prevented the flash from the charge from getting ahead of the projectile and solved the problem of controlling the initiation of the secondary charges. By the end of May 1944, there were four designs for the 150 mm finned projectile, one manufactured by Fasterstoff (designed by Füstenberg) and three others by Röchling (Cönders), Bochumer (Verein-Haack), and Witkowitz Ironworks (Athem). Trials were held at Misdroy from 20–24 May 1944 with ranges of up to being attained. On 4 July 1944, the Misdroy gun was test-fired with 8 rounds (one of the long shells travelled ). The gun burst during the testing, putting an end to the tests. Mimoyecques site Reconstructed plan of the site Major Bock of Festung Pioneer-Stab 27 (the fortification regiment of LVII Corps, Fifteenth Army, at the time based in the Dieppe area) was given the task of finding a suitable site for the HDP batteries following Hitler's decision that HDP guns should be sited in northern France to bombard London. A study in early 1943 concluded that a hill with a rock core would be most suitable, as the gun tubes could be placed in drifts (inclined tunnels) and support equipment and supplies located in adjacent tunnels. The guns would not be movable and would be permanently aimed at London. A suitable site was selected at a limestone hill about north of the Hidrequent quarries, near Mimoyecques in the Pas-de-Calais region of northern France behind Cap Gris Nez, very close to the French end of the present day Channel tunnel, where V-1 and V-2 launch sites were already under construction. The site was from the sea and from London. It was code-named Wiese (meadow) and Bauvorhaben 711 (Construction Project 711), and Organisation Todt began construction in September 1943 with the building of railway lines to support the work, and began to excavate the gun shafts in October. The initial layout comprised two parallel facilities approximately apart, each with five drifts which were to hold a stacked cluster of five HDP gun tubes, for a total of 50 guns. Both facilities were served by an underground railway tunnel and underground ammunition storage galleries. The eastern complex consisted of five drifts angled at 50 degrees reaching below the hilltop. The five drifts exited the hilltop through a concrete slab wide and thick. Large steel plates protected the five openings and each drift had a special armoured door. Extensive tunnels and elevator shafts supported the guns and, if the site had become operational, about 1,000 troops from Artillerie Abteilung 705 and supporting units would have been deployed at Mimoyecques. Artillerie Abteilung 705 had been organised in January 1944 under Oberstleutnant Georg Borttscheller to operate the Wiese gun complex. The plans were to have the first battery of five gun tubes ready for March 1944, and the full complex of 25 gun tubes by 1 October 1944. A failure occurred at the Misdroy proving ground in April 1944 after only 25 rounds had been fired and, as a result, the project was further cut back from five drifts to three, even though work had begun on some of the other drifts. The site was finally put out of commission on 6 July 1944, when bombers of RAF Bomber Command's 617 Squadron (the famous "Dambusters") attacked using "Tallboy" deep-penetration bombs. Luxembourg bombardment The project eventually came under the control of the SS, and SS General Hans Kammler ordered it to be ready for action in late 1944, assisted by Walter Dornberger. A battery was constructed of two shorter V-3 guns approximately long with 12 side-chambers, and it was placed in the hands of the army artillery unit Artillerie Abteilung 705 under the command of Hauptmann (Captain) Patzig. These were sited in a wooded ravine of the Ruwer River at Lampaden about southeast of Trier in Germany. The two guns were aimed west, resting on 13 steel support structures on solid wooden bases on a 34 degree slope. The city of Luxembourg (which had been liberated in September 1944) was at a range of about and was designated Target No. 305. Concrete blockhouses were constructed between the two gun tubes, as well as ten smaller bunkers to hold projectiles and propellant charges. The assembly and mounting of the Lampaden guns coincided with the final preparations for the Battle of the Bulge. The supply of ammunition became problematic due to the state of the German railway network. Time had become critical, and it was decided to use a finned projectile with a discarding sabot, weighing and carrying a explosive charge. The propellant comprised a main charge and 24 subsidiary charges for a total of . By the time that the Ardennes offensive began on 16 December 1944, Kammler received orders from OB West (German Army Command in the West) to begin firing at the end of the month, and the first gun tube was ready for action on 30 December 1944. Two warm-up rounds were initially fired, followed by five high-explosive shells which were fired in sequence, attended by Kammler. The muzzle velocity was approximately . The second gun tube was brought into operation on 11 January 1945 and 183 rounds in total were fired until 22 February 1945, with 44 confirmed hits in the urban area. From the 142 rounds that struck Luxembourg, total casualties were 10 dead and 35 wounded. Fate One of the two Lampaden guns was dismantled on 15 February, and firing ceased on 22 February, when US Army units had advanced to within of the Lampaden site. A second battery of guns began to be deployed in January 1945 at Buhl, aimed at Belfort in support of the Operation Nordwind offensive. One gun was erected before the failure of the Nordwind offensive put the site at risk, and the equipment was removed before firing could begin. There were other proposals to deploy batteries to bombard London, Paris, Antwerp and other cities but these were not implemented due to the poor state of the German railway network and a lack of ammunition. All four HDP guns were eventually abandoned at the Röchling works in Wetzlar and Artillerie Abteilung 705 was re-equipped with conventional artillery. The disassembled gun tubes, spare parts, and remaining ammunition were later captured by the US Army and shipped to the United States where they were tested and evaluated at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, and scrapped there in 1948. V-3 museum The Mimoyecques museum allows visitors to view the galleries (in various stages of construction and bombing damage), remains of the guns, a small scale V-3 replica, and examples of machinery, rail systems and tools employed. The site also contains memorials to the slave labourers who were forced by the Nazis to construct it NOTE: The length of the V-3 cannon at Mimoyecques surpassed the Schwerer Gustav (Dora) 800 mm super-cannon, the Mörser Karl (Gerät 040) 600 mm tracked siege mortar, and the Leopold and Robert 320 mm railway cannons. and to the airmen killed in action during the destruction of the base. The Misdroy site also has a museum. Scale model of V-3 gun Hugh Hunt of Cambridge University, together with explosives engineer Charlie Adcock created a working scale model of the V-3 gun and was able to prove the ignition of the propellants was done by the advancing gas behind the projectile. See also * Cross-Channel guns in the Second World War * Project HARP References and notes Notes Citations Bibliography External links Various photos World War II museums in France World War II sites in France Ruins in France World War II artillery of Germany Research and development in Nazi Germany V-weapons V-weapon subterranea World War II in the Pas-de-Calais 150 mm artillery "