❤️ Battle of Bannockburn 🐴

"The Battle of Bannockburn ( or ) on 23 and 24 June 1314 was a victory of the army of King of Scots Robert the Bruce over the army of King Edward II of England in the First War of Scottish Independence. Although it did not bring an end to the war, as victory would only be secured 14 years later, Bannockburn is still a landmark in Scottish history. King Edward invaded Scotland after Bruce demanded in 1313 that all supporters still loyal to ousted Scottish king John Balliol acknowledge Bruce as their king or lose their lands. Stirling Castle, a Scots royal fortress occupied by the English, was under siege by the Scottish army. King Edward assembled a formidable force of soldiers from England, Ireland and Wales to relieve it – the largest army ever to invade Scotland. This attempt failed when he found his path blocked by a smaller army commanded by Bruce. The Scottish army was divided into three divisions of schiltrons commanded by Bruce, his brother Edward Bruce, and his nephew, the Earl of Moray. After Robert Bruce killed Sir Henry de Bohun on the first day of the battle, the English were forced to withdraw for the night. Sir Alexander Seton, a Scottish noble serving in Edward's army, defected to the Scottish side and informed them of the English camp's position and low morale. Robert Bruce decided to launch a full-scale attack on the English forces and to use his schiltrons again as offensive units, a strategy his predecessor William Wallace had not used. The English army was defeated in a pitched battle which resulted in the deaths of several prominent commanders, including the Earl of Gloucester and Sir Robert Clifford, and capture of many others. The victory against the English at Bannockburn is the most celebrated in Scottish history, and for centuries the battle has been commemorated in verse and art. The National Trust for Scotland operates the Bannockburn Visitor Centre (previously known as the Bannockburn Heritage Centre). Though the exact location for the battle is uncertain, a modern monument was erected in a field above a possible site of the battlefield, where the warring parties are believed to have camped, alongside a statue of Robert Bruce designed by Pilkington Jackson. The monument, along with the associated visitor centre, is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the area. Background The Wars of Scottish Independence between England and Scotland began in 1296 and initially the English were successful under the command of Edward I, having won victories at the Battle of Dunbar (1296) and at the Capture of Berwick (1296).Black, Jeremy. (2005). The Seventy Great Battles of All Time. pp. 71–73. Thames & Hudson Ltd. . The removal of John Balliol from the Scottish throne also contributed to the English success. The Scots had been victorious in defeating the English at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. This was countered, however, by Edward I's victory at the Battle of Falkirk (1298). By 1304, Scotland had been conquered, but in 1306 Robert the Bruce seized the Scottish throne and the war was reopened. After the death of Edward I, his son Edward II of England came to the throne in 1307 but was incapable of providing the determined leadership his father had shown, and the English position soon became more difficult. In 1313, Bruce demanded the allegiance of all remaining Balliol supporters, under threat of losing their lands, as well as the surrender of the English forces encircling Stirling Castle. The castle was one of the most important castles held by the English, as it commanded the route north into the Scottish Highlands. It was besieged in 1314 by Robert the Bruce's younger brother, Edward Bruce, and an agreement was made that if the castle was not relieved by mid-summer it would be surrendered to the Scots. The English could not ignore this challenge and prepared and equipped a substantial campaign. It is known that Edward II requested 2,000 heavily armoured cavalry and 25,000 infantry, many of whom were likely armed with longbows, from England, Wales and Ireland; it is estimated no more than half the infantry actually arrived, but the English army was still by far the largest ever to invade Scotland. The Scottish army probably numbered around 6,000 men, including no more than 500 mounted forces. Unlike the English, the Scottish cavalry was probably unequipped for charging enemy lines and suitable only for skirmishing and reconnaissance. The Scottish infantry was likely armed with axes, swords and pikes, and included only a few bowmen. The precise numerical advantage of the English forces relative to the Scottish forces is unknown, but modern researchers estimate that the Scottish faced English forces one-and-a-half to two or three times their size.Watson, F., "In Our Time: The Battle of Bannockburn", BBC Radio, 3 February 2011 Prelude Holkham Bible, c. 1330: Depiction of a biblical battle, giving an impression of how soldiers were equipped at Bannockburn. Edward II and his advisors were aware of the places the Scots were likely to challenge them and sent orders for their troops to prepare for an enemy established in boggy ground near the River Forth, near Stirling. The English appear to have advanced in four divisions, known as 'schiltrons', which were strong defensive squares of men with pikes. Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray, commanded the Scottish vanguard, which was stationed about a mile south of Stirling, near the church of St. Ninian, while the king commanded the rearguard at the entrance to the New Park. His brother Edward led the third division. The fourth division was nominally under the youthful Walter the Steward, but actually under the command of Sir James Douglas.Nicholson, Later Middle Ages pp.87–89 The Scottish archers used yew-stave longbows and, though these were not weaker than or inferior to English longbows, there were fewer Scottish archers, possibly only 500. These archers played little part in the battle.The Chronicle of Lanercost says that, on the second day of the battle, "the English archers were thrown forward before the line, and the Scottish archers engaged them, a few being killed and wounded on either side; but the King of England's archers quickly put the others to flight." The Chronicle of Lanercost, 1272–1346: Translated, with notes by Sir Herbert Maxwell. p. 206 There is first-hand evidence in a poem, written just after the battle by the captured Carmelite friar Robert Baston, that one or both sides employed slingers and crossbowmen.Walter Bower, Scotichronicon,Book XII, p. 371 Battle =Location of the battlefield= The exact site of the Battle of Bannockburn has been debated for many years, but most modern historians agree that the traditional site, where a visitor centre and statue have been erected, is not correct.Mackenzie, W. M. (1913). The Battle of Bannockburn: a Study in Mediaeval Warfare, Publisher: James MacLehose; Glasgow. A large number of alternative locations have been considered but modern researchers believe only two merit serious consideration:Barrow, Geoffrey W.S. (1998). Robert Bruce & The Community of The Realm of Scotland. * An area of peaty ground outside the village of Balquhiderock known as the Dryfield, about east of the traditional site.Barron, E.M., The Scottish War of Independence: a Critical Study, 1934 * The Carse of Balquhiderock, about northeast of the traditional site. This location is accepted by the National Trust as the most likely site.Christison, Philip, Bannockburn: The Story of the Battle, 1960, Edinburgh: The National Trust for Scotland. =First day of battle= An interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn—first day Most medieval battles were short-lived, lasting only a few hours, so the Battle of Bannockburn is unusual in that it lasted two days. On 23 June 1314 two English cavalry formations advanced. The first was commanded by the Earl of Gloucester and by the Earl of Hereford. They encountered a body of Scots led by Robert the Bruce. Bruce and Henry de Bohun, nephew of the Earl of Hereford, faced off in what became a celebrated instance of single combat. Bohun charged at Bruce and, when the two passed side by side, Bruce split Bohun's head with his axe.Hyland, Ann. The Warhorse 1250–1600, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1998, p 38 The Scots then rushed the English forces under Gloucester's and Hereford's command, who retreated, struggling back over the Bannockburn.The Battle of Bannockburn britishbattles.com. Retrieved 14 June 2014. The second English cavalry force was commanded by Robert Clifford and Henry de Beaumont. Their forces included Sir Thomas de Grey of Heaton, father of the chronicler Thomas Grey. The younger Grey described the battle: =Second day of battle= An interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn—second day. During the night the English forces crossed the stream known as the Bannockburn, establishing their position on the plain beyond it. A Scottish knight, Alexander Seton, who was fighting in the service of Edward II of England, deserted the English camp and told Bruce that English morale was low and encouraged him to attack. In the morning the Scots advanced from New Park. Not long after daybreak, Edward was surprised to see the Scottish pikemen emerge from the cover of the woods and advance towards his position. As Bruce's army drew nearer, they paused and knelt in prayer. Edward reportedly said in surprise, "They pray for mercy!" "For mercy, yes," one of his attendants replied, "but from God, not you. These men will conquer or die." The Earl of Gloucester had argued with the Earl of Hereford over who should lead the vanguard into battle. He had also tried to persuade the king that the battle should be postponed. This led the king to accuse him of cowardice. Goaded by the accusation, the Earl of Gloucester advanced to meet the Scots. Few accompanied Gloucester and, when he reached the Scottish lines, he was quickly surrounded and killed. The English were gradually pushed back and ground down by the Scots' schiltrons. The English longbowmen attempted to support the advance of the knights but were ordered to stop shooting, as they were causing casualties among their own. The English then attempted to deploy their English and Welsh longbowmen to flank the advancing Scots, but they were dispersed by 500 Scottish cavalry under the Marischal Sir Robert Keith. (Although the Scottish cavalry is sometimes described as light cavalry, this appears to be a misinterpretation of Barbour's statement that these were men-at-arms on lighter horses than those of their English counterparts.(Brown, C. (2008) pp 129–130)) The English cavalry was hemmed in against the Bannockburn, making it difficult for them to manoeuvre. Unable to hold their formations, they broke rank. It soon became clear to Aymer de Valence and Giles d'Argentan (reputedly the third-best knight in Europe) that the English had lost the battle and Edward II needed at all costs to be led to safety. Seizing the reins of the king's horse, they dragged him away, closely followed by 500 knights of the royal bodyguard. Once they were clear of the battle d'Argentan turned to the king and said: "Sire, your protection was committed to me, but since you are safely on your way, I will bid you farewell for never yet have I fled from a battle, nor will I now." He turned his horse to charge back into the ranks of Scottish, where he was overborne and slain. =English retreat= Edward fled with his personal bodyguard and panic spread among the remaining troops, turning their defeat into a rout. King Edward with about 500 men first fled for Stirling Castle where Sir Philip de Moubray, commander of the castle, turned him away as the castle would shortly be surrendered to the Scots. Then, pursued by James Douglas and a small troop of horsemen, Edward fled to Dunbar Castle, from which he took a ship to Berwick. From the carnage of Bannockburn, the rest of the army tried to escape to the safety of the English border, south. Many were killed by the pursuing Scottish army or by the inhabitants of the countryside they passed through. Historian Peter Reese wrote that "only one sizeable group of men – all foot soldiers – made good their escape to England." These were a force of Welsh spearmen who were kept together by their commander, Sir Maurice de Berkeley. The majority of them reached Carlisle. Weighing the available evidence, Reese concludes that "it seems doubtful if even a third of the foot soldiers returned to England." If his estimate is accurate, of 16,000 English infantrymen, about 11,000 were killed. The English chronicler Thomas Walsingham gave the number of English men-at-arms who were killed as 700,Mackenzie, p.88 referencing Walsingham, p.141 while 500 more men-at-arms were spared for ransom.Mackenzie, p.90 The Scottish losses appear to have been comparatively light, with only two knights among those killed.Reese, p.176 Aftermath The immediate aftermath was the surrender of Stirling Castle, one of Scotland's most important fortresses, to King Robert. He then slighted it to prevent it from being retaken. Nearly as important was the surrender of Bothwell Castle where a sizeable party of English nobles, including the Earl of Hereford, had taken refuge. In exchange for the captured nobles, Edward II released Robert's wife Elizabeth de Burgh, sisters Christina Bruce, Mary Bruce and daughter Marjorie Bruce, and Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow, ending their 8-year imprisonment in England. The defeat of the English opened up the north of England to Scottish raids and allowed the Scottish invasion of Ireland. These finally led, after the failure of the Declaration of Arbroath to secure diplomatic recognition of Scotland's independence by the Pope, to the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton in 1328. Under the treaty the English crown recognised the full independence of the Kingdom of Scotland, and acknowledged Robert the Bruce, and his heirs and successors, as the rightful rulers. Notable casualties The following are the notable casualties and captives of the battle. =Deaths= * Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester * Sir Giles d'Argentan * John Lovel, 2nd Baron Lovel * John Comyn, Lord of Badenoch * Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford * Sir Henry de Bohun * William Marshal, Marshal of Ireland * Edmund de Mauley, King's Steward * Sir Robert de Felton of Litcham, 1st Lord * Malduin (Malcolm) MacGilchrist, 3rd Lord of Arrochar *William de Vescy of Kildare *John de Montfort, 2nd Baron Montfort *Payn Tibetoft, 1st Baron Tibotot *William de Hastelegh *Edmund Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings *Miles de Stapleton *Simon Ward *Michael de Poinyng *Thomas de Ufford *John de Elsingfelde *Ralph de Beauchamp =Captives= * Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford * John Segrave, 2nd Baron Segrave * Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley * Thomas de Berkeley * Sir Marmaduke Tweng * Ralph de Monthermer, 1st Baron Monthermer * Robert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus * Sir Anthony de Luci * Sir Ingram de Umfraville * Sir John Maltravers, 1st Baron Maltravers * Sir Thomas de Grey of Heaton * William le Latimer * John Giffard * Giles de Beauchamp * Gilbert de Bohun * Thomas de Ferrers * Roger Corbet * John Bluwet * Bartholomew de Enefeld * John Cysrewast * John de Clavering Legacy =Bannockburn Visitor Centre= The hemicircle of the modern Bannockburn monument In 1932 the Bannockburn Preservation Committee, under Edward Bruce, 10th Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, presented lands to the National Trust for Scotland. Further lands were purchased in 1960 and 1965 to facilitate visitor access. A modern monument was erected in a field above the possible site of the battle, where the warring parties are believed to have camped on the night before the battle. The monument consists of two hemicircular walls depicting the opposing parties. Nearby stands the 1960s statue of Bruce by Pilkington Jackson. Although the statue was conceived by Pilkington Jackson he commissioned Thomas Taylor Bowie of the Ontario College of Art in Toronto to create the statue. The monument, and the associated visitor centre, is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the area. The battlefield has been included in the Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland and protected by Historic Scotland under the Historic Environment (Amendment) Act 2011. MK18535 Bannockburn.jpgAlley to the monument MK18541 Bannockburn Robert the Bruce.jpgStatue of Robert the Bruce by Pilkington Jackson MK18543 Bannockburn.jpgView of the circular walls and the flag pole MK18545 Bannockburn Robert the Bruce.jpgClose-up of the statue The National Trust for Scotland operates the Bannockburn Visitor Centre (previously known as the Bannockburn Heritage Centre), which is open daily from March through October. On 31 October 2012 the original building was closed for demolition and replacement by a new design, inspired by traditional Scottish buildings, by Reiach and Hall Architects. The project is a partnership between the National Trust for Scotland and Historic Environment Scotland, funded by the Scottish Government and the Heritage Lottery Fund. The battlefield's new visitor centre – now rebranded as the Bannockburn Visitor Centre – opened in March 2014. One of the attractions created by a £9m redevelopment of the centre and the nearby battlefield memorial is a computerised multiplayer game. On 11 June 2020, during the George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom, the statue was defaced with graffiti. =Arts= Cassell's History of England. "Scots Wha Hae" is the title of a patriotic poem by Robert Burns.The Complete Works of Robert Burns at Project Gutenberg. The chorus of Scotland's unofficial national anthem Flower of Scotland refers to Scotland's victory over Edward and the English at Bannockburn. Many artworks depict the battle. John Duncan and Eric Harald Macbeth Robertson both painted Bruce's encounter with de Bohun. John Phillip painted Bruce receiving the sacrament on the eve of the battle. John Hassall painted a similar theme. A painting by William Findlay depicts Bruce at the battle. The aftermath of the battle is the setting of the Space: 1999 episode Journey to Where. The closing scene of the 1995 film Braveheart shows the moments before the Battle of Bannockburn. Departing from history, in the film King Robert decides to do battle spontaneously. The Last Stand album by Sabaton features the song "Blood of Bannockburn". References Sources =Primary= * Barbour, John, The Brus, trans. A. A. M. Duncan, 1964. * Bower, Walter, Scotichronicon, ed. D. E. R. Watt, 1987–1993. Lanercost Chronicle, edited and translated by H. Maxwell, 1913. * Vita Edwardi Secundi (Life of Edward the Second), ed. N. D. Young, 1957. * Walsingham, Thomas, Historia Anglicana. =Secondary= * Armstrong, Pete (illustrated by Graham Turner), Bannockburn 1314: Robert Bruce's Great Victory, Osprey Publishing, 2002 * Barrow, G. W. S., Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland, 1988, * Brown, C.A., "Bannockburn 1314",History Press,Stroud, 2008, . * Brown, C.A., Robert the Bruce. A life Chronicled. Brown, M., Wars of Scotland Cornell, David. Bannockburn: The Triumph of Robert the Bruce. Yale University Press, 2009. * Mackenzie, W. M., Bannockburn: A Study in Medieval Warfare, The Strong Oak Press, Stevenage 1989 (first published 1913), * MacNamee, C., The Wars of the Bruces * Nicholson, R., Scotland-the Later Middle Ages, 1974. * Prestwich, M., The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1377, 1980 * Ramsay, J. H., The Genesis of Lancaster, 1307–99, 1913. * Reese, P., Bannockburn, Canongate, Edinburgh, 2003, * External links *The Battle of Bannockburn on National Trust of Scotland website *archive of The Battle of Bannockburn 700th Anniversary Project *Battle of Bannockburn on Medieval Archives Podcast *BBC "In our time" discussion on the battle and its consequences Presentation by Stirling Council's Archaeologist Dr Murray Cook on the debates about the location and history of the Battle of Bannockburn 1314 in Scotland Battles between England and Scotland Bannockburn, Battle of Conflicts in 1314 History museums in Scotland Bannockburn Military and war museums in Scotland Museums in Stirling (council area) National Trust for Scotland properties "

❤️ Lelystad 🐴

"Lelystad () is a municipality and a city in the centre of the Netherlands, and it is the capital of the province of Flevoland. The city, built on reclaimed land, was founded in 1967 and was named after Cornelis Lely, who engineered the Afsluitdijk, making the reclamation possible. Lelystad is approximately below sea level. History Lelystad is built on the seabed of the former Zuiderzee. About 6500 years ago this wetland was above high tide level and inhabited; the Netherlands have steadily subsided since. Near Lelystad at Swifterbant, the oldest human skeletons in Western Europe were discovered. Due to rising water levels and storms, the peatlands were washed away, and the Lacus Flevo (in Roman times) grew to be the Almere (Middle Ages) and became the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) was the main transport route from Amsterdam to the North Sea and the Hanseatic League cities. Due to the many shipwrecks in Flevoland, Lelystad now houses the National Centre for Maritime History, with a museum and the shipyard that has built the Batavia replica. Sunset over the IJsselmeer, bordering Lelystad. After the Second World War the Zuiderzee Works continued, constructing the polder of Eastern Flevoland. In 1950 work commenced on several construction islands in the middle of the IJsselmeer. Lelystad-Haven was the largest island, and its wooden barracks housed a community of dyke-builders. In 1955 they reached the mainland, which made it possible to drive to Lelystad by car. One of the three pumping stations, which drained the polder in June 1957, was the diesel-powered Wortman in Lelystad-Haven. Until 1967 the only inhabitants of Lelystad were technical engineers and laborers and superintendents, living on the former construction island. Climate Landscape Dutch topographic map of Lelystad (city), March 2014 Lelystad is the largest municipality in the Netherlands in area, but a large part of that area is water: Markermeer and IJsselmeer. Another major area is the internationally famous nature park of Oostvaardersplassen, which arose naturally when the polder of South Flevoland was drained. Lelystad is also surrounded by a square of woodlands and parks and flat farmland. The importance of the landscape and sky is emphasized by several pieces of land art: engineers' work and works such as the Observatorium by Robert Morris (see below). The artificial islands of Marker Wadden lie immediately to the northwest of Lelystad. Construction started in 2016, and the first islands have already become important wildlife sites, with many species of birds coming to the islands during the breeding season. Tourism Lelystad has several tourist attractions, including: * The replica of the 17th-century ship Batavia at the Batavia Shipyard * Batavia Stad Fashion Outlet * Hanzestad Compagnie, a fleet of historical sailing ships * Lelystad Nature Park * National Aviation Theme Park Aviodrome * Modern architecture, for example the Zilverparkkade and Agora Theatre * The oldest tree of Flevoland Lelystad hosts many one-day events like the Lelystad Airshow, the Water Festival, the National Old Timer Day, Lelystad Speedway, Architecture day and several sports events. On the Midland Circuit many motor, kart and stock car racing events and several autoclub meetings are held. On the coast there are several marinas. Transport Lelystad can be reached by air, water, and land. * Air: Lelystad Airport is the biggest general aviation airport in the Netherlands. It is owned wholly by Schiphol Group. Lelystad Airport is currently undergoing major expansion, including the construction of a passenger terminal for commercial flights, as well as an extension of the runway. Commercial flights are expected to take off from and arrive at Lelystad Airport in 2020, with Ryanair and Transavia showing interest in operating from the airport. * Water: Lelystad has a small inland port, several marinas, and a canal system which also functions to aid in managing the water levels in the rest of the polder. The canal system connects to the Markermeer with a lock to the southwest of Lelystad, and connects the city and its industrial areas to all other towns and their respective industrial areas in the polder. * Rail: the Weesp–Lelystad railway (Flevolijn) extends south from Lelystad Centrum railway station and connects the city with Almere, and to the Randstad region beyond. The Lelystad–Zwolle railway (Hanzelijn) extends north from Lelystad and connects it with Dronten, Kampen and Zwolle. * Motorway: The A6 motorway runs along Lelystad on the eastern side of the city. There are two on-ramps connecting this motorway to Lelystad, each allowing traffic to travel northbound to Emmeloord and the province of Friesland, or southbound to Almere and the Randstad region. * Provincial roads: The N302 provincial road runs through Lelystad, this road connects Lelystad to the south-east with Harderwijk and the province of Gelderland beyond, and across the Houtribdijk to Enkhuizen and the province of North Holland beyond. The N307 and N309 extend to the east from Lelystad, both connecting to Dronten and beyond that to Kampen in the province of Overijssel and Elburg in the province of Gelderland respectively. Shield and flag The honeycomb grid in the arms of Lelystad represents the dykes, built with six-edged concrete or basalt blocks. The colour gold indicates the high costs of the project of making the polder. The centre shield is the arms of engineer Cornelis Lely. The sealions reflect the history of the land. In the flag, the fleur-de-lis (lily) again takes a central point, referring to the name Lely. The yellow background reflects the precious land, and the blue lines the dykes and waterways. The flag of the province is similarly adorned with the fleur-de-lis to commemorate Lely. Notable residents Bueno de Mesquita * Abraham Bueno de Mesquita (1918–2005) comedian and actor IMDb Database retrieved 8 June 2019 * Hans Gruijters (1931–2005) politician and journalist * Hubert Fermina (born 1948) nurse and former politician * Michiel van Hulten (born 1969) former politician and MEP (1999–2004) * Edsilia Rombley, (born 1978) singer IMDb Database retrieved 8 June 2019 * Rianne ten Haken (born 1986) a Dutch model IMDb Database retrieved 8 June 2019 = Sport = Daan Brandenburg, 2009 * Co Stompé, (born 1962) retired professional darts player * Aron Winter, (born 1967) retired footballer and football manager * Ivan Sokolov, (born 1968) Bosnian chess grand-master * Chiel Warners, (born 1978) former decathlete * Charles Zwolsman Jr. (born 1979) racing car driver * Karin Ruckstuhl, (born 1980) former heptathlete * Guido van der Valk (born 1980) professional golfer * Ruben Schaken, (born 1982) football player * Niels de Ruiter (born 1983) former Dutch darts player, current director of the Dutch Darts Federation * Thijs van Valkengoed (born 1983), breaststroke swimmer, competed at the 2004 and the 2008 Summer Olympics * Boy Waterman, (born 1984) football goalkeeper * Daan Brandenburg (born 1987) chess grandmaster * Nathaniël Will (born 1989) footballer * Alex Vlaar (born 1996) a Bulgarian badminton player Twin city Lelystad maintains international relations with the Surinamese twin city of Lelydorp. References External links Official website Cities in the Netherlands Municipalities of Flevoland Populated places in Flevoland Populated places established in 1967 Provincial capitals of the Netherlands "

❤️ IJsselmeer 🐴

"260px The IJsselmeer (, also , ,"IJsselmeer" (US) and ; ), also known as Lake IJssel in English, is a closed off inland bay in the central Netherlands bordering the provinces of Flevoland, North Holland and Friesland. It covers an area of with an average depth of . The river IJssel flows into the IJsselmeer. History Traditional boat on the IJsselmeer Sunset over the IJsselmeer Two thousand years ago Pomponius Mela, a Roman geographer, mentioned a complex of lakes at the current location of the IJsselmeer. He called it Lacus Flevo. Over the centuries, the lake banks crumbled away due to flooding and wave action and the lake grew considerably. During the 12th and 13th centuries, storm surges and rising sea levels flooded large areas of land between the lake and the North Sea, turning the lake into a bay of the North Sea, called the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee continued to be a threat to the Dutch, especially when northwesterly storms funnel North Sea waters towards the English Channel, creating very high tides along the Dutch coast. During the 17th century, Zuiderzee dykes collapsed several times and plans were drawn up to eliminate the threat by draining the bay. Later drainage plans focused on creating fertile farmland, but they never progressed beyond the planning stage. It was only after the flood of 1916 that the legislature approved the Zuiderzee Works, a major hydraulic engineering project that involved building dykes, draining parts of the Zuiderzee and constructing the Afsluitdijk to keep tides and high water out. In 1932 the Zuiderzee was closed off by the Afsluitdijk, a dyke connecting Friesland and Noord-Holland on either side of the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee was no longer a sea inlet and was renamed IJsselmeer (Lake IJssel). The continuing flow of riverwater soon flushed out the saltwater. From 1929 till 1967, over half the IJsselmeer was drained, creating of poldersUSGS Earthshots: IJsselmeer: Wieringermeerpolder, Noordoostpolder, East and South Flevoland. In 1975, a dyke was built between Enkhuizen and Lelystad as northern boundary of the Markerwaard, a planned but never realized polder in the IJsselmeer. This dyke, the Houtribdijk or Markerwaarddijk, split the IJsselmeer in two parts. The former southern part of the IJsselmeer is now the hydrologically separate Markermeer. The proposed polderisation of the Markerwaard was abandoned after many of the Dutch population did not want the loss of the traditional seaside (now lakeside) environment and vistas. In 1986 three polders in the IJsselmeer constituted the new province of Flevoland, the twelfth province of the Netherlands. The water of the IJsselmeer is now almost completely fresh, the saline having long since been purged. This altered environment has had an impact upon the fish and plant ecosystems. The change has been beneficial for Dutch boats, many of which are steel, as the fresh water significantly reduces rusting of the hulls, and there is far less build-up of marine growth (such as algae and barnacles below the barges' waterlines). This has the knock-on benefit that barges and yachts in the IJsselmeer need far less antifouling, a coating which is inevitably somewhat toxic to wildlife. Current use Due to considerable amounts of water from the Rhine flowing through its distributary IJssel into the IJsselmeer, the closed off bay functions as a large freshwater reservoir, serving as a source for agriculture and drinking water. Outlet sluices in the Afsluitdijk regulate the water level of the IJsselmeer. The IJsselmeer is used for transport and fishing. It also offers a number of opportunities for recreational activity, both on the water and on its shores. Due to the shallowness of the IJsselmeer, the Markermeer and the bordering lakes, its cities and fishing villages remained mostly unspoilt and have many historical buildings.Authentic villages around IJsselmeer The IJsselmeer is home to the offshore segments of Windpark Noordoostpolder. In the future, Windpark Fryslan will also be built in this bay.https://www.4coffshore.com/windfarms/windpark-fryslân-netherlands- nl0g.html See also * Ketelmeer, a small bay between the IJsselmeer and the mouth of the river IJssel. * IJsseloog, an artificial island in the Ketelmeer, built as a repository for contaminated silt. * Lake Flevo * Almere (lake) * Zuiderzee Notes References Lakes of the Netherlands Estuaries of the Netherlands Zuiderzee Works Landforms of Flevoland Landforms of North Holland Landforms of Friesland Ramsar sites in the Netherlands "