❤️ Frame of reference 🐗

"In physics, a frame of reference (or reference frame) consists of an abstract coordinate system and the set of physical reference points that uniquely fix (locate and orient) the coordinate system and standardize measurements within that frame. For n dimensions, reference points are sufficient to fully define a reference frame. Using rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates, a reference frame may be defined with a reference point at the origin and a reference point at one unit distance along each of the n coordinate axes. In Einsteinian relativity, reference frames are used to specify the relationship between a moving observer and the phenomenon or phenomena under observation. In this context, the phrase often becomes "observational frame of reference" (or "observational reference frame"), which implies that the observer is at rest in the frame, although not necessarily located at its origin. A relativistic reference frame includes (or implies) the coordinate time, which does not equate across different frames moving relatively to each other. The situation thus differs from Galilean relativity, where all possible coordinate times are essentially equivalent. Different aspects of "frame of reference" The need to distinguish between the various meanings of "frame of reference" has led to a variety of terms. For example, sometimes the type of coordinate system is attached as a modifier, as in Cartesian frame of reference. Sometimes the state of motion is emphasized, as in rotating frame of reference. Sometimes the way it transforms to frames considered as related is emphasized as in Galilean frame of reference. Sometimes frames are distinguished by the scale of their observations, as in macroscopic and microscopic frames of reference.The distinction between macroscopic and microscopic frames shows up, for example, in electromagnetism where constitutive relations of various time and length scales are used to determine the current and charge densities entering Maxwell's equations. See, for example, . These distinctions also appear in thermodynamics. See . In this article, the term observational frame of reference is used when emphasis is upon the state of motion rather than upon the coordinate choice or the character of the observations or observational apparatus. In this sense, an observational frame of reference allows study of the effect of motion upon an entire family of coordinate systems that could be attached to this frame. On the other hand, a coordinate system may be employed for many purposes where the state of motion is not the primary concern. For example, a coordinate system may be adopted to take advantage of the symmetry of a system. In a still broader perspective, the formulation of many problems in physics employs generalized coordinates, normal modes or eigenvectors, which are only indirectly related to space and time. It seems useful to divorce the various aspects of a reference frame for the discussion below. We therefore take observational frames of reference, coordinate systems, and observational equipment as independent concepts, separated as below: * An observational frame (such as an inertial frame or non-inertial frame of reference) is a physical concept related to state of motion. * A coordinate system is a mathematical concept, amounting to a choice of language used to describe observations. In very general terms, a coordinate system is a set of arcs xi = xi (t) in a complex Lie group; see . Less abstractly, a coordinate system in a space of n-dimensions is defined in terms of a basis set of vectors {e1, e2,… en}; see As such, the coordinate system is a mathematical construct, a language, that may be related to motion, but has no necessary connection to motion. Consequently, an observer in an observational frame of reference can choose to employ any coordinate system (Cartesian, polar, curvilinear, generalized, …) to describe observations made from that frame of reference. A change in the choice of this coordinate system does not change an observer's state of motion, and so does not entail a change in the observer's observational frame of reference. This viewpoint can be found elsewhere as well. Which is not to dispute that some coordinate systems may be a better choice for some observations than are others. * Choice of what to measure and with what observational apparatus is a matter separate from the observer's state of motion and choice of coordinate system. Here is a quotation applicable to moving observational frames \mathfrak{R} and various associated Euclidean three-space coordinate systems [R, R′, etc.]: and this on the utility of separating the notions of \mathfrak{R} and [R, R′, etc.]: and this, also on the distinction between \mathfrak{R} and [R, R′, etc.]: and from J. D. Norton:John D. Norton (1993). General covariance and the foundations of general relativity: eight decades of dispute, Rep. Prog. Phys., 56, pp. 835-7. The discussion is taken beyond simple space-time coordinate systems by Brading and Castellani. Extension to coordinate systems using generalized coordinates underlies the Hamiltonian and Lagrangian formulations of quantum field theory, classical relativistic mechanics, and quantum gravity. = Coordinate systems = An observer O, situated at the origin of a local set of coordinates – a frame of reference F. The observer in this frame uses the coordinates (x, y, z, t) to describe a spacetime event, shown as a star. Although the term "coordinate system" is often used (particularly by physicists) in a nontechnical sense, the term "coordinate system" does have a precise meaning in mathematics, and sometimes that is what the physicist means as well. A coordinate system in mathematics is a facet of geometry or of algebra, in particular, a property of manifolds (for example, in physics, configuration spaces or phase spaces).According to Hawking and Ellis: "A manifold is a space locally similar to Euclidean space in that it can be covered by coordinate patches. This structure allows differentiation to be defined, but does not distinguish between different coordinate systems. Thus, the only concepts defined by the manifold structure are those that are independent of the choice of a coordinate system." A mathematical definition is: A connected Hausdorff space M is called an n-dimensional manifold if each point of M is contained in an open set that is homeomorphic to an open set in Euclidean n-dimensional space. The coordinates of a point r in an n-dimensional space are simply an ordered set of n numbers:See Encarta definition. Archived 2009-10-31. : \mathbf{r} = [x^1,\ x^2,\ \dots,\ x^n]. In a general Banach space, these numbers could be (for example) coefficients in a functional expansion like a Fourier series. In a physical problem, they could be spacetime coordinates or normal mode amplitudes. In a robot design, they could be angles of relative rotations, linear displacements, or deformations of joints. Here we will suppose these coordinates can be related to a Cartesian coordinate system by a set of functions: : x^j = x^j (x,\ y,\ z,\ \dots),\quad j = 1,\ \dots,\ n, where x, y, z, etc. are the n Cartesian coordinates of the point. Given these functions, coordinate surfaces are defined by the relations: : x^j (x, y, z, \dots) = \mathrm{constant},\quad j = 1,\ \dots,\ n. The intersection of these surfaces define coordinate lines. At any selected point, tangents to the intersecting coordinate lines at that point define a set of basis vectors {e1, e2, …, en} at that point. That is: : \mathbf{e}_i(\mathbf{r}) = \lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} \frac{\mathbf{r}\left(x^1,\ \dots,\ x^i + \epsilon,\ \dots,\ x^n\right) - \mathbf{r}\left(x^1,\ \dots,\ x^i,\ \dots ,\ x^n\right)}{\epsilon},\quad i = 1,\ \dots,\ n, which can be normalized to be of unit length. For more detail see curvilinear coordinates. Coordinate surfaces, coordinate lines, and basis vectors are components of a coordinate system. If the basis vectors are orthogonal at every point, the coordinate system is an orthogonal coordinate system. An important aspect of a coordinate system is its metric tensor gik, which determines the arc length ds in the coordinate system in terms of its coordinates: : (ds)^2 = g_{ik}\ dx^i\ dx^k, where repeated indices are summed over. As is apparent from these remarks, a coordinate system is a mathematical construct, part of an axiomatic system. There is no necessary connection between coordinate systems and physical motion (or any other aspect of reality). However, coordinate systems can include time as a coordinate, and can be used to describe motion. Thus, Lorentz transformations and Galilean transformations may be viewed as coordinate transformations. General and specific topics of coordinate systems can be pursued following the See also links below. = Observational frames of reference = Three frames of reference in special relativity. The black frame is at rest. The primed frame moves at 40% of light speed, and the double primed frame at 80%. Note the scissors-like change as speed increases. An observational frame of reference, often referred to as a physical frame of reference, a frame of reference, or simply a frame, is a physical concept related to an observer and the observer's state of motion. Here we adopt the view expressed by Kumar and Barve: an observational frame of reference is characterized only by its state of motion.See However, there is lack of unanimity on this point. In special relativity, the distinction is sometimes made between an observer and a frame. According to this view, a frame is an observer plus a coordinate lattice constructed to be an orthonormal right- handed set of spacelike vectors perpendicular to a timelike vector. See Doran.. This restricted view is not used here, and is not universally adopted even in discussions of relativity.For example, Møller states: "Instead of Cartesian coordinates we can obviously just as well employ general curvilinear coordinates for the fixation of points in physical space.…we shall now introduce general "curvilinear" coordinates xi in four-space…." In general relativity the use of general coordinate systems is common (see, for example, the Schwarzschild solution for the gravitational field outside an isolated sphere). There are two types of observational reference frame: inertial and non-inertial. An inertial frame of reference is defined as one in which all laws of physics take on their simplest form. In special relativity these frames are related by Lorentz transformations, which are parametrized by rapidity. In Newtonian mechanics, a more restricted definition requires only that Newton's first law holds true; that is, a Newtonian inertial frame is one in which a free particle travels in a straight line at constant speed, or is at rest. These frames are related by Galilean transformations. These relativistic and Newtonian transformations are expressed in spaces of general dimension in terms of representations of the Poincaré group and of the Galilean group. In contrast to the inertial frame, a non-inertial frame of reference is one in which fictitious forces must be invoked to explain observations. An example is an observational frame of reference centered at a point on the Earth's surface. This frame of reference orbits around the center of the Earth, which introduces the fictitious forces known as the Coriolis force, centrifugal force, and gravitational force. (All of these forces including gravity disappear in a truly inertial reference frame, which is one of free-fall.) = Measurement apparatus = A further aspect of a frame of reference is the role of the measurement apparatus (for example, clocks and rods) attached to the frame (see Norton quote above). This question is not addressed in this article, and is of particular interest in quantum mechanics, where the relation between observer and measurement is still under discussion (see measurement problem). In physics experiments, the frame of reference in which the laboratory measurement devices are at rest is usually referred to as the laboratory frame or simply "lab frame." An example would be the frame in which the detectors for a particle accelerator are at rest. The lab frame in some experiments is an inertial frame, but it is not required to be (for example the laboratory on the surface of the Earth in many physics experiments is not inertial). In particle physics experiments, it is often useful to transform energies and momenta of particles from the lab frame where they are measured, to the center of momentum frame "COM frame" in which calculations are sometimes simplified, since potentially all kinetic energy still present in the COM frame may be used for making new particles. In this connection it may be noted that the clocks and rods often used to describe observers' measurement equipment in thought, in practice are replaced by a much more complicated and indirect metrology that is connected to the nature of the vacuum, and uses atomic clocks that operate according to the standard model and that must be corrected for gravitational time dilation. (See second, meter and kilogram). In fact, Einstein felt that clocks and rods were merely expedient measuring devices and they should be replaced by more fundamental entities based upon, for example, atoms and molecules.See . Examples of inertial frames of reference = Simple example = Figure 1: Two cars moving at different but constant velocities observed from stationary inertial frame S attached to the road and moving inertial frame S′ attached to the first car. Consider a situation common in everyday life. Two cars travel along a road, both moving at constant velocities. See Figure 1. At some particular moment, they are separated by 200 metres. The car in front is travelling at 22 metres per second and the car behind is travelling at 30 metres per second. If we want to find out how long it will take the second car to catch up with the first, there are three obvious "frames of reference" that we could choose. First, we could observe the two cars from the side of the road. We define our "frame of reference" S as follows. We stand on the side of the road and start a stop-clock at the exact moment that the second car passes us, which happens to be when they are a distance apart. Since neither of the cars is accelerating, we can determine their positions by the following formulas, where x_1(t) is the position in meters of car one after time t in seconds and x_2(t) is the position of car two after time t. : x_1(t) = d + v_1 t = 200 + 22t,\quad x_2(t) = v_2 t = 30t. Notice that these formulas predict at t = 0 s the first car is 200 m down the road and the second car is right beside us, as expected. We want to find the time at which x_1=x_2. Therefore, we set x_1=x_2 and solve for t, that is: : 200 + 22t = 30t, : 8t = 200, : t = 25\ \mathrm{seconds}. Alternatively, we could choose a frame of reference S′ situated in the first car. In this case, the first car is stationary and the second car is approaching from behind at a speed of . In order to catch up to the first car, it will take a time of , that is, 25 seconds, as before. Note how much easier the problem becomes by choosing a suitable frame of reference. The third possible frame of reference would be attached to the second car. That example resembles the case just discussed, except the second car is stationary and the first car moves backward towards it at . It would have been possible to choose a rotating, accelerating frame of reference, moving in a complicated manner, but this would have served to complicate the problem unnecessarily. It is also necessary to note that one is able to convert measurements made in one coordinate system to another. For example, suppose that your watch is running five minutes fast compared to the local standard time. If you know that this is the case, when somebody asks you what time it is, you are able to deduct five minutes from the time displayed on your watch in order to obtain the correct time. The measurements that an observer makes about a system depend therefore on the observer's frame of reference (you might say that the bus arrived at 5 past three, when in fact it arrived at three). = Additional example = Figure 2: Simple-minded frame-of-reference example For a simple example involving only the orientation of two observers, consider two people standing, facing each other on either side of a north- south street. See Figure 2. A car drives past them heading south. For the person facing east, the car was moving towards the right. However, for the person facing west, the car was moving toward the left. This discrepancy is because the two people used two different frames of reference from which to investigate this system. For a more complex example involving observers in relative motion, consider Alfred, who is standing on the side of a road watching a car drive past him from left to right. In his frame of reference, Alfred defines the spot where he is standing as the origin, the road as the -axis and the direction in front of him as the positive -axis. To him, the car moves along the axis with some velocity in the positive -direction. Alfred's frame of reference is considered an inertial frame of reference because he is not accelerating (ignoring effects such as Earth's rotation and gravity). Now consider Betsy, the person driving the car. Betsy, in choosing her frame of reference, defines her location as the origin, the direction to her right as the positive -axis, and the direction in front of her as the positive -axis. In this frame of reference, it is Betsy who is stationary and the world around her that is moving – for instance, as she drives past Alfred, she observes him moving with velocity in the negative -direction. If she is driving north, then north is the positive -direction; if she turns east, east becomes the positive -direction. Finally, as an example of non-inertial observers, assume Candace is accelerating her car. As she passes by him, Alfred measures her acceleration and finds it to be in the negative -direction. Assuming Candace's acceleration is constant, what acceleration does Betsy measure? If Betsy's velocity is constant, she is in an inertial frame of reference, and she will find the acceleration to be the same as Alfred in her frame of reference, in the negative -direction. However, if she is accelerating at rate in the negative -direction (in other words, slowing down), she will find Candace's acceleration to be in the negative -direction—a smaller value than Alfred has measured. Similarly, if she is accelerating at rate A in the positive -direction (speeding up), she will observe Candace's acceleration as in the negative -direction—a larger value than Alfred's measurement. Frames of reference are especially important in special relativity, because when a frame of reference is moving at some significant fraction of the speed of light, then the flow of time in that frame does not necessarily apply in another frame. The speed of light is considered to be the only true constant between moving frames of reference. = Remarks = It is important to note some assumptions made above about the various inertial frames of reference. Newton, for instance, employed universal time, as explained by the following example. Suppose that you own two clocks, which both tick at exactly the same rate. You synchronize them so that they both display exactly the same time. The two clocks are now separated and one clock is on a fast moving train, traveling at constant velocity towards the other. According to Newton, these two clocks will still tick at the same rate and will both show the same time. Newton says that the rate of time as measured in one frame of reference should be the same as the rate of time in another. That is, there exists a "universal" time and all other times in all other frames of reference will run at the same rate as this universal time irrespective of their position and velocity. This concept of time and simultaneity was later generalized by Einstein in his special theory of relativity (1905) where he developed transformations between inertial frames of reference based upon the universal nature of physical laws and their economy of expression (Lorentz transformations). The definition of inertial reference frame can also be extended beyond three-dimensional Euclidean space. Newton's assumed a Euclidean space, but general relativity uses a more general geometry. As an example of why this is important, consider the geometry of an ellipsoid. In this geometry, a "free" particle is defined as one at rest or traveling at constant speed on a geodesic path. Two free particles may begin at the same point on the surface, traveling with the same constant speed in different directions. After a length of time, the two particles collide at the opposite side of the ellipsoid. Both "free" particles traveled with a constant speed, satisfying the definition that no forces were acting. No acceleration occurred and so Newton's first law held true. This means that the particles were in inertial frames of reference. Since no forces were acting, it was the geometry of the situation which caused the two particles to meet each other again. In a similar way, it is now common to describeThat is, both descriptions are equivalent and can be used as needed. This equivalence does not hold outside of general relativity, e.g., in entropic gravity. that we exist in a four-dimensional geometry known as spacetime. In this picture, the curvature of this 4D space is responsible for the way in which two bodies with mass are drawn together even if no forces are acting. This curvature of spacetime replaces the force known as gravity in Newtonian mechanics and special relativity. Non-inertial frames Here the relation between inertial and non-inertial observational frames of reference is considered. The basic difference between these frames is the need in non- inertial frames for fictitious forces, as described below. An accelerated frame of reference is often delineated as being the "primed" frame, and all variables that are dependent on that frame are notated with primes, e.g. x′, y′, a′. The vector from the origin of an inertial reference frame to the origin of an accelerated reference frame is commonly notated as R. Given a point of interest that exists in both frames, the vector from the inertial origin to the point is called r, and the vector from the accelerated origin to the point is called r′. From the geometry of the situation, we get : \mathbf r = \mathbf R + \mathbf r'. Taking the first and second derivatives of this with respect to time, we obtain : \mathbf v = \mathbf V + \mathbf v', : \mathbf a = \mathbf A + \mathbf a'. where V and A are the velocity and acceleration of the accelerated system with respect to the inertial system and v and a are the velocity and acceleration of the point of interest with respect to the inertial frame. These equations allow transformations between the two coordinate systems; for example, we can now write Newton's second law as : \mathbf F = m\mathbf a = m\mathbf A + m\mathbf a'. When there is accelerated motion due to a force being exerted there is manifestation of inertia. If an electric car designed to recharge its battery system when decelerating is switched to braking, the batteries are recharged, illustrating the physical strength of manifestation of inertia. However, the manifestation of inertia does not prevent acceleration (or deceleration), for manifestation of inertia occurs in response to change in velocity due to a force. Seen from the perspective of a rotating frame of reference the manifestation of inertia appears to exert a force (either in centrifugal direction, or in a direction orthogonal to an object's motion, the Coriolis effect). A common sort of accelerated reference frame is a frame that is both rotating and translating (an example is a frame of reference attached to a CD which is playing while the player is carried). This arrangement leads to the equation (see Fictitious force for a derivation): : \mathbf a = \mathbf a' + \dot{\boldsymbol\omega} \times \mathbf r' + 2\boldsymbol\omega \times \mathbf v' + \boldsymbol\omega \times (\boldsymbol\omega \times \mathbf r') + \mathbf A_0, or, to solve for the acceleration in the accelerated frame, : \mathbf a' = \mathbf a - \dot{\boldsymbol\omega} \times \mathbf r' - 2\boldsymbol\omega \times \mathbf v' - \boldsymbol\omega \times (\boldsymbol\omega \times \mathbf r') - \mathbf A_0. Multiplying through by the mass m gives : \mathbf F' = \mathbf F_\mathrm{physical} + \mathbf F'_\mathrm{Euler} + \mathbf F'_\mathrm{Coriolis} + \mathbf F'_\mathrm{centripetal} - m\mathbf A_0, where : \mathbf F'_\mathrm{Euler} = -m\dot{\boldsymbol\omega} \times \mathbf r' (Euler force), : \mathbf F'_\mathrm{Coriolis} = -2m\boldsymbol\omega \times \mathbf v' (Coriolis force), : \mathbf F'_\mathrm{centrifugal} = -m\boldsymbol\omega \times (\boldsymbol\omega \times \mathbf r') = m(\omega^2 \mathbf r' - (\boldsymbol\omega \cdot \mathbf r')\boldsymbol\omega) (centrifugal force). Particular frames of reference in common use * International Terrestrial Reference Frame * International Celestial Reference Frame * In fluid mechanics, Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field = Other frames = * Frame fields in general relativity * Linguistic frame of reference * Moving frame in mathematics See also * Analytical mechanics * Applied mechanics * Cartesian coordinate system * Center-of-momentum frame * Centrifugal force * Centripetal force * Classical mechanics * Coriolis force * Curvilinear coordinates * Dynamics (physics) * Frenet–Serret formulas * Galilean invariance * General relativity * Generalized coordinates * Generalized forces * Inertial frame of reference * Material frame-indifference * Rod and frame test * Kinematics * Laboratory frame of reference * Lorentz transformation * Mach's principle * Orthogonal coordinates * Principle of relativity * Quantum reference frame Notes Category:Theory of relativity Category:Geodesy Category:Navigation Category:Surveying Category:Astrometry "

❤️ Constantius Chlorus 🐗

"Constantius I (Marcus Flavius Valerius Constantius; 31 March 25 July 306) was a Roman emperor. He ruled as Caesar from 293 to 305 and as Augustus from 305 to 306. He was the junior colleague of the Augustus Maximian under the Tetrarchy and succeeded him as senior co-emperor of the western part of the empire. Constantius ruled the West while Galerius was Augustus in the East. He was the father of Constantine the Great and founder of the Constantinian dynasty. After his death he became known as Chlorus (, 'the Green'), but the nickname does not appear in records before the sixth century. As Caesar, a junior emperor appointed by Diocletian, he defeated the usurper Carausius in Gaul and his successor Allectus in Britain, and campaigned extensively along the Rhine frontier, defeating the Alamanni and Franks. Upon becoming Augustus in May 305, Constantius and his son launched a successful punitive campaign against the Picts beyond the Antonine Wall.W.S. Hanson "Roman campaigns north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus: the evidence of the temporary camps" However, Constantius died suddenly at Eboracum (York) in July the following year. Constantius's death and the acclamation of his son as Augustus by his army in 306 sparked civil wars ending in the collapse of the tetrarchic system of government inaugurated in 293 by Diocletian and the eventual resumption of dynastic rule over the whole empire by Constantine and his family after the defeat of his co-emperor Licinius in 325. Life =Early career= Constantius was born in Dacia Ripensis, a Roman province on the south bank of the Middle Danube – the empire's frontier – with its capital at Ratiaria (modern ). He was the son of Eutropius, whom the Historia Augusta claimed to be a nobleman from northern Dardania, in the province of Moesia Superior, and Claudia, a niece of the emperors Claudius Gothicus and Quintillus.Historia Augusta, Life of Claudius 13 Modern historians suspect this maternal connection to be a genealogical fabrication created by his son Constantine I,Southern, pg. 172 and that his family was of humble origins.Martindale, pg. 227 Constantine probably sought to dissociate his father's background from the memory of Maximian. The claim that Constantius was descended from Claudius Gothicus is attested only after 310 and does not appear to have been made while Constantius was alive. Pietas on the reverse. Constantius was a member of the Protectores Augusti Nostri under the emperor Aurelian and fought in the east against the secessionist Palmyrene Empire.Potter, pg. 288 While the claim that he had been made a dux under the emperor Probus is probably a fabrication,Martindale, pg. 228Historia Augusta, Life of Probus 22:3 he certainly attained the rank of tribunus within the army, and during the reign of Carus he was raised to the position of praeses, or governor, of the province of Dalmatia.Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. p.16 It has been conjectured that he switched allegiances to support the claims of the future emperor Diocletian just before Diocletian defeated Carinus, the son of Carus, at the Battle of the Margus in July 285.Potter, pg. 280 In 286, Diocletian elevated a military colleague, Maximian, to the throne as co-emperor of the western provinces,Southern, pg. 142 while Diocletian took over the eastern provinces, beginning the process that would eventually see the division of the Roman Empire into two halves, a Western and an Eastern portion. By 288, his period as governor now over, Constantius had been made Praetorian Prefect in the west under Maximian.DiMaio, Constantine I Chlorus Throughout 287 and into 288, Constantius, under the command of Maximian, was involved in a war against the Alamanni, carrying out attacks on the territory of the barbarian tribes across the Rhine and Danube rivers.Southern, pg. 142 To consolidate the ties between himself and Emperor Maximian, Constantius divorced his concubine Helena and married the emperor's daughter, Theodora.Potter, pg. 288 =Elevation as Caesar= On the reverse of this argenteus struck in Antioch under Constantius Chlorus, the tetrarchs are sacrificing to celebrate a victory against the Sarmatians. By 293, Diocletian, conscious of the ambitions of his co-emperor for his new son-in-law, allowed Maximian to promote Constantius in a new power sharing arrangement known as the Tetrarchy.Southern, pg. 145 The eastern and western provinces would each be ruled by an Augustus, supported by a Caesar. Both Caesars had the right of succession once the ruling Augustus died. At Mediolanum (Milan) on March 1, 293, Constantius was formally appointed as Maximian's Caesar.Birley, pg. 382 He adopted the name "Flavius Valerius Constantius", and, being equated with Maximian, also took on "Herculius".Southern, pg. 147 His given command consisted of Gaul, Britannia and possibly Hispania. Diocletian, the eastern Augustus, in order to keep the balance of power in the imperium,Southern, pg. 145 elevated Galerius as his Caesar, possibly on May 21, 293 at Philippopolis (Plovdiv). Constantius was the more senior of the two Caesars, and on official documents he always took precedence, being mentioned before Galerius.Southern, pg. 147 Constantius' capital was to be located at Augusta Treverorum (Trier). Constantius' first task on becoming Caesar was to deal with the Roman usurper Carausius who had declared himself emperor in Britannia and northern Gaul in 286. In late 293, Constantius defeated the forces of Carausius in Gaul, capturing Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer).Birley, pg. 385 This precipitated the assassination of Carausius by his rationalis (finance officer) Allectus, who assumed command of the British provinces until his death in 296. Constantius spent the next two years neutralising the threat of the Franks who were the allies of Allectus,Southern, pg. 149 as northern Gaul remained under the control of the British usurper until at least 295.Birley, pg. 387 He also battled against the Alamanni, achieving some victories at the mouth of the Rhine in 295.Birley, pgs. 385-386 Administrative concerns meant he made at least one trip to Italy during this time as well.Southern, pg. 149 Only when he felt ready (and only when Maximian finally came to relieve him at the Rhine frontier)Southern, pg. 150 did he assemble two invasion fleets with the intent of crossing the English Channel. The first was entrusted to Julius Asclepiodotus, Constantius' long-serving Praetorian prefect, who sailed from the mouth of the Seine, while the other, under the command of Constantius himself, was launched from his base at Bononia.Birley, pg. 388 The fleet under Asclepiodotus landed near the Isle of Wight, and his army encountered the forces of Allectus, resulting in the defeat and death of the usurper.Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39 Constantius in the meantime occupied Londinium (London),Potter, pg. 292 saving the city from an attack by Frankish mercenaries who were now roaming the province without a paymaster. Constantius massacred all of them.Southern, pg. 150 Constantius remained in Britannia for a few months, replaced most of Allectus' officers, and the British provinces were probably at this time subdivided along the lines of Diocletian's other administrative reforms of the Empire.Birley, pg. 393 The result was the division of Britannia Superior into Maxima Caesariensis and Britannia Prima, while Flavia Caesariensis and Britannia Secunda were carved out of Britannia Inferior. He also restored Hadrian's Wall and its forts.Birley, pg. 405 Later in 298, Constantius fought in the Battle of Lingones (Langres) against the Alemanni. He was shut up in the city, but was relieved by his army after six hours and defeated the enemy.Eutropius, Breviarum 9.23 He defeated them again at Vindonissa (Windisch),UNRV History: Battle of the Third Century AD thereby strengthening the defences of the Rhine frontier. In 300, he fought against the Franks on the Rhine frontier,Southern, pg. 152 and as part of his overall strategy to buttress the frontier, Constantius settled the Franks in the deserted parts of Gaul to repopulate the devastated areas.Birley, pg. 373 Nevertheless, over the next three years the Rhine frontier continued to occupy Constantius' attention.Southern, pg. 152 From 303 – the beginning of the Diocletianic Persecution – Constantius began to enforce the imperial edicts dealing with the persecution of Christians, which ordered the destruction of churches. The campaign was avidly pursued by Galerius, who noticed that Constantius was well-disposed towards the Christians, and who saw it as a method of advancing his career prospects with the aging Diocletian.Potter, pg. 338 Of the four Tetrarchs, Constantius made the least effort to implement the decrees in the western provinces that were under his direct authority,Potter, pg. 339; Southern, pg. 168 limiting himself to knocking down a handful of churches.DiMaio, Constantine I Chlorus Eusebius denied that Constantius destroyed Christian buildings, but Lactantius records that he did. =Accession as Augustus and death= Medal of Constantius I capturing Londinium (inscribed as LON) after defeating Allectus. Beaurains hoard. Constantine and Helena. Mosaic in Saint Isaac's Cathedral, Peterburg, Russia Between 303 and 305, Galerius began maneuvering to ensure that he would be in a position to take power from Constantius after the death of Diocletian.Potter, pg. 344 In 304, Maximian met with Galerius, probably to discuss the succession issue and Constantius either was not invited or could not make it due to the situation on the Rhine.Southern, pg. 152 Although prior to 303 there appeared to be tacit agreement among the Tetrarchs that Constantius's son Constantine and Maximian's son Maxentius were to be promoted to the rank of Caesar once Diocletian and Maximian had resigned the purple,Potter, pg. 340 by the end of 304 Galerius had convinced Diocletian (who in turn convinced Maximian) to appoint Galerius's nominees Severus and Maximinus Daia as Caesars.Southern, pg. 152 Diocletian and Maximian stepped down as co-emperors on May 1, 305, possibly due to Diocletian's poor health. Before the assembled armies at Mediolanum, Maximian removed his purple cloak and handed it to Severus, the new Caesar, and proclaimed Constantius as Augustus. The same scene played out at Nicomedia (İzmit) under the authority of Diocletian.Potter, pg. 342 Constantius, notionally the senior emperor, ruled the western provinces, while Galerius took the eastern provinces. Constantine, disappointed in his hopes to become a Caesar, fled the court of Galerius after Constantius had asked Galerius to release his son as Constantius was ill.Southern, pg. 169 Constantine joined his father's court at the coast of Gaul, just as he was preparing to campaign in Britain.Southern, pg. 170; Eutropius, Breviarum 10.1; Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus 39; Zosimus, Historia Nova 2 In 305 Constantius crossed over into Britain, travelled to the far north of the island and launched a military expedition against the Picts, claiming a victory against them and the title Britannicus Maximus II by 7 January 306.Birley, pg. 406 After retiring to Eboracum (York) for the winter, Constantius had planned to continue the campaign, but on 25 July 306, he died. As he was dying, Constantius recommended his son to the army as his successor;Potter, pg. 346 consequently Constantine was declared emperor by the legions at York.Eutropius, Breviarum 10.1–2 Family Constantius was either married to, or was in concubinage with, Helena, who was probably from Nicomedia in Asia Minor.Eutropius, Breviarum 9.22; Zosimus, Historia Nova 2; Exerpta Valesiana 1.2 They had one son: Constantine. In 289 political developments forced him to divorce Helena. He married Theodora, Maximian's daughter. They had six children: *Flavius Dalmatius *Julius Constantius *Hannibalianus *Flavia Julia Constantia *Anastasia *Eutropia The name of Anastasia () may indicate a sympathy with Christian or Jewish culture. Legend =Christian legends= As the father of Constantine, a number of Christian legends have grown up around Constantius. Eusebius's Life of Constantine claims that Constantius was himself a Christian, although he pretended to be a pagan, and while Caesar under Diocletian, took no part in the Emperor's persecutions.Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13–18 It was claimed that his first wife, Helena, found the True Cross. =British legends= Constantius's activities in Britain were remembered in medieval Welsh legend, which frequently confused his family with that of Magnus Maximus, who also was said to have wed a Saint Elen and sired a son named Constantine while in Britain. Henry of Huntingdon's History of the English identified Constantius's wife Helen as BritishHenry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum 1.37 and Geoffrey of Monmouth repeated the claim in his 1136 History of the Kings of Britain. Geoffrey related that Constantius was sent to Britain by the Senate after Asclepiodotus (here a British king) was overthrown by Coel of Colchester. Coel submitted to Constantius and agreed to pay tribute to Rome, but died only eight days later. Constantius married his daughter Helena and became king of Britain. He and Helena had a son, Constantine, who succeeded to the throne of Britain when his father died at York eleven years later.Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britanniae 5.6 These accounts have no historical validity: Constantius had divorced Helena before he went to Britain. Similarly, the History of the Britons traditionally ascribed to NenniusNennius (). Theodor Mommsen (). Historia Brittonum. Composed after 830\. Hosted at Latin Wikisource. mentions the inscribed tomb of "Constantius the Emperor" was still present in the 9th century in Segontium (near present-day Caernarfon, Wales).Newman, John Henry & al. Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre, Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92\. James Toovey (London), 1844. David Nash Ford credited the monument to Constantine, the supposed son of Magnus Maximus and Elen, who was said to have ruled over the area prior to the Irish invasions.Ford, David Nash. "The 28 Cities of Britain " at Britannia. 2000. Sources =Primary sources= *Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus *Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History 1050581 extract: ‘Diocletian to the Death of Galerius': 284-311 *Zosimus, Historia Nova =Secondary sources= Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 *Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge, 2004 * DiMaio, Robert, "Constantius I Chlorus (305–306 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis, 1996 References External links *Constantius Chlorus on History of York website Category:3rd-century births Category:306 deaths Category:3rd-century Roman emperors Category:4th-century Roman emperors Category:Ancient Romans in Britain Category:British traditional history Category:Caesars of the Tetrarchy Category:Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth Category:Constantinian dynasty Category:Deified Roman emperors Category:Equestrian commanders of vexillationes Valerius Constantius, Gaius Category:Imperial Roman consuls Category:Illyrian people Category:Valerii Category:Tetrarchy "

❤️ The Canadas 🐗

"The Canadas is the collective name for the provinces of Lower Canada and Upper Canada, two historical British colonies in present-day Canada. The two colonies were formed in 1791, when the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act, splitting the colonial Province of Quebec into two separate colonies. The Ottawa River formed the border between Lower and Upper Canada. The Canadas were merged into a single entity in 1841, shortly after Lord Durham published his Report on the Affairs of British North America. His report held several recommendations, most notably union of the Canadas. Acting on his recommendation, the British Parliament passed the Act of Union 1840. The Act went into effect in 1841, uniting the Canadas into the Province of Canada. The terms "Lower" and "Upper" refer to the colony's position relative to the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River. * Lower Canada covered the southeastern portion of the present-day province of Quebec, Canada, and (until 1809) the Labrador region of Newfoundland and Labrador. * Upper Canada covered what is now the southern portion of the province of Ontario and the lands bordering Georgian Bay and Lake Superior. History The two colonies were created in 1791 with the passage of the Constitutional Act 1791. As a result of the influx of Loyalists from the American Revolutionary War, the Province of Quebec was divided into two new colonies, consisting of Lower and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper Canada was in response to the influx of United Empire Loyalist settlers, who desired a colonial administration modelled under British institutions and common law, especially British laws of land tenure. Conversely, Lower Canada maintained most of the French Canadian institutions guaranteed under the Quebec Act, such as the French civil law system. In 1838 Lord Durham was sent to the colonies to examine the causes for rebellion in the Canadas. His report on the colonies recommended that the two colonies should be united, and the introduction of responsible government. The British Parliament would eventually act on the former suggestion, with the passage of the Act of Union 1840. The Act of Union went into force in 1841, and saw the Canadas united into the Province of Canada. However, the Act did not establish responsible government, which was not introduced until 1848. See also *The Californias *The Carolinas *The Dakotas *The Floridas *Rhodesia (region) *The Virginias References External links Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas Category:States and territories established in 1791 Category:1841 disestablishments in North America Category:History of Canada Category:History of Ontario by location Category:History of Quebec by location Category:Pre-Confederation Quebec Category:Former colonies in North America Category:1791 establishments in the British Empire Category:States and territories disestablished in 1841 "