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"Untreated cork panel Cork is an impermeable buoyant material, the phellem layer of bark tissue that is harvested for commercial use primarily from Quercus suber (the cork oak), which is endemic to southwest Europe and northwest Africa. Cork is composed of suberin, a hydrophobic substance. Because of its impermeable, buoyant, elastic, and fire retardant properties, it is used in a variety of products, the most common of which is wine stoppers. The montado landscape of Portugal produces approximately half of cork harvested annually worldwide, with Corticeira Amorim being the leading company in the industry.J. L. Calheiros E Meneses, President, Junta Nacional da Cortiça, Portugal. "The cork industry in Portugal" Cork was examined microscopically by Robert Hooke, which led to his discovery and naming of the cell. Sources Quercus suber (cork oak) bark, Portugal There are about 2,200,000 hectares of cork forest worldwide; 34% in Portugal and 27% in Spain. Annual production is about 200,000 tons; 49.6% from Portugal, 30.5% from Spain, 5.8% from Morocco, 4.9% from Algeria, 3.5% from Tunisia, 3.1% Italy, and 2.6% from France. Once the trees are about 25 years old the cork is traditionally stripped from the trunks every nine years, with the first two harvests generally producing lower quality cork. The trees live for about 300 years. The cork industry is generally regarded as environmentally friendly.Skidmore, Sarah, USA Today (August 26, 2007). "Stopper pulled on cork debate" Cork production is generally considered sustainable because the cork tree is not cut down to obtain cork; only the bark is stripped to harvest the cork. The tree continues to live and grow. The sustainability of production and the easy recycling of cork products and by-products are two of its most distinctive aspects. Cork oak forests also prevent desertification and are a particular habitat in the Iberian Peninsula and the refuge of various endangered species.Henley, Paul, BBC.com (September 18, 2008) "Urging vintners to put a cork in it" Carbon footprint studies conducted by Corticeira Amorim, Oeneo Bouchage of France and the Cork Supply Group of Portugal concluded that cork is the most environmentally friendly wine stopper in comparison to other alternatives. The Corticeira Amorim’s study, in particular ("Analysis of the life cycle of Cork, Aluminum and Plastic Wine Closures"), was developed by PricewaterhouseCoopers, according to ISO 14040.PricewaterhouseCoopers/ECOBILAN (October 2008). Analysis of the life cycle of Cork, Aluminium and Plastic Wine Closures. Results concluded that, concerning the emission of greenhouse gases, each plastic stopper released 10 times more CO2, whilst an aluminium screw cap releases 26 times more CO2 than does a cork stopper. The cork oak is unrelated to the "cork trees" (Phellodendron), which have corky bark but are not used for cork production. Harvesting Cork extraction near Aracena, Spain Cork is extracted only from early May to late August, when the cork can be separated from the tree without causing permanent damage. When the tree reaches 25–30 years of age and about 24 in (60 cm) in circumference, the cork can be removed for the first time. However, this first harvest almost always produces poor quality or "virgin" cork (Portuguese cortiça virgem; Spanish corcho bornizo or corcho virgen). Bark from initial harvests can be used to make flooring, shoes, insulation and other industrial products. Subsequent extractions usually occur at intervals of 9 years, though it can take up to 13 for the cork to reach an acceptable size. If the product is of high quality it is known as "gentle" cork (Portuguese cortiça amadia,Amadio comes from and is synonym of amavio, "beberage or spell to seduce" (Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa), from amar, "to love". but also cortiça secundeira only if it is the second time; Spanish corcho segundero, also restricted to the "second time"), and, ideally, is used to make stoppers for wine and champagne bottles. The workers who specialize in removing the cork are known as extractors. An extractor uses a very sharp axe to make two types of cuts on the tree: one horizontal cut around the plant, called a crown or necklace, at a height of about 2–3 times the circumference of the tree, and several vertical cuts called rulers or openings. This is the most delicate phase of the work because, even though cutting the cork requires significant force, the extractor must not damage the underlying phellogen or the tree will be harmed. To free the cork from the tree, the extractor pushes the handle of the axe into the rulers. A good extractor needs to use a firm but precise touch in order to free a large amount of cork without damaging the product or tree. These freed portions of the cork are called planks. The planks are usually carried off by hand since cork forests are rarely accessible to vehicles. The cork is stacked in piles in the forest or in yards at a factory and traditionally left to dry, after which it can be loaded onto a truck and shipped to a processor. Properties and uses Varnished cork tiles can be used for flooring, as an alternative for linoleum, stone or ceramic tiles Cork's elasticity combined with its near-impermeability makes it suitable as a material for bottle stoppers, especially for wine bottles. Cork stoppers represent about 60% of all cork based production. Cork has an almost zero Poisson's ratio, which means the radius of a cork does not change significantly when squeezed or pulled. Cork is an excellent gasket material. Some carburetor float bowl gaskets are made of cork, for example. Cork is also an essential element in the production of badminton shuttlecocks. Cork's bubble-form structure and natural fire retardant make it suitable for acoustic and thermal insulation in house walls, floors, ceilings and facades. The by- product of more lucrative stopper production, corkboard is gaining popularity as a non-allergenic, easy-to-handle and safe alternative to petrochemical- based insulation products. Sheets of cork, also often the by-product of stopper production, are used to make bulletin boards as well as floor and wall tiles. Cork's low density makes it a suitable material for fishing floats and buoys, as well as handles for fishing rods (as an alternative to neoprene). Granules of cork can also be mixed into concrete. The composites made by mixing cork granules and cement have lower thermal conductivity, lower density and good energy absorption. Some of the property ranges of the composites are density (400–1500 kg/m³), compressive strength (1–26 MPa) and flexural strength (0.5–4.0 MPa).Karade SR. 2003. An Investigation of Cork Cement Composites. PhD Thesis. BCUC. Brunel University, UK. =Use in wine bottling= stopper for a wine bottle As late as the mid-17th century, French vintners did not use cork stoppers, using instead oil-soaked rags stuffed into the necks of bottles.Prlewe, J. Wine From Grape to Glass. New York: Abbeville Press, 1999, p. 110. Wine corks can be made of either a single piece of cork, or composed of particles, as in champagne corks; corks made of granular particles are called "agglomerated corks". Natural cork closures are used for about 80% of the 20 billion bottles of wine produced each year. After a decline in use as wine-stoppers due to the increase in the use of synthetic alternatives, cork wine-stoppers are making a comeback and currently represent approximately 60% of wine-stoppers in 2016. High-speed air-gap flash image of a champagne bottle being uncorked Because of the cellular structure of cork, it is easily compressed upon insertion into a bottle and will expand to form a tight seal. The interior diameter of the neck of glass bottles tends to be inconsistent, making this ability to seal through variable contraction and expansion an important attribute. However, unavoidable natural flaws, channels, and cracks in the bark make the cork itself highly inconsistent. In a 2005 closure study, 45% of corks showed gas leakage during pressure testing both from the sides of the cork as well as through the cork body itself. Since the mid-1990s, a number of wine brands have switched to alternative wine closures such as plastic stoppers, screw caps, or other closures. During 1972 more than half of the Australian bottled wine went bad due to corking. A great deal of anger and suspicion was directed at Portuguese and Spanish cork suppliers who were suspected of deliberately supplying bad cork to non-EEC wine makers to help prevent cheap imports. Cheaper wine makers developed the aluminium "Stelvin" cap with a polypropylene stopper wad. More expensive wines and carbonated varieties continued to use cork, although much closer attention was paid to the quality. Even so, some high premium makers prefer the Stelvin as it is a guarantee that the wine will be good even after many decades of ageing. Some consumers may have conceptions about screw caps being representative of lower quality wines, due to their cheaper price; however, in Australia, for example, much of the non-sparkling wine production now uses these Stelvin caps as a cork alternative, although some have recently switched back to cork citing issues using screw caps. These alternatives to cork have both advantages and disadvantages. For example, screwtops are generally considered to offer a trichloroanisole (TCA) free seal, but they also reduce the oxygen transfer rate between the bottle and the atmosphere to almost zero, which can lead to a reduction in the quality of the wine. TCA is the main documented cause of cork taint in wine. However, some in the wine industry say natural cork stoppers are important because they allow oxygen to interact with wine for proper aging, and are best suited for wines purchased with the intent to age. Stoppers which resemble natural cork very closely can be made by isolating the suberin component of the cork from the undesirable lignin, mixing it with the same substance used for contact lenses and an adhesive, and molding it into a standardized product, free of TCA or other undesirable substances.Diam Corks , The Wine Society Composite corks with real cork veneers are used in cheaper wines. The study "Analysis of the life cycle of Cork, Aluminum and Plastic Wine Closures," conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers and commissioned by a major cork manufacturer, Amorim, concluded that cork is the most environmentally responsible stopper, in a one-year life cycle analysis comparison with plastic stoppers and aluminum screw caps. =Other uses= $million/month), showing a peak in 2002 SEM image of cork (MUSE - Science Museum) The famous early (1665) micrograph of cork, drawn by Robert Hooke, and described in Micrographia, book written by him. Fig. A (Right) is TS and Fig. B (Left) is LS of cork. * On November 28, 2007, the Portuguese national postal service CTT issued the world's first postage stamp made of cork.Publico.pt Cork stamp almost sold out * In musical instruments, particularly woodwind instruments, where it is used to fasten together segments of the instrument, making the seams airtight. Low quality conducting baton handles are also often made out of cork. * In shoes, especially those using welt construction to improve climate control and comfort. * Because it is impermeable and moisture-resistant, cork is often used as an alternative to leather in handbags, wallets and other fashion items. * To make bricks for the outer walls of houses, as in Portugal's pavilion at Expo 2000. * As the core of both baseballs and cricket balls. A corked bat is made by replacing the interior of a baseball bat with cork – a practice known as "corking". It was historically a method of cheating at baseball; the efficacy of the practice is now discredited. * in various forms, in spacecraft heat shields and fairings. * In the paper pick-up mechanisms in inkjet and laser printers. * To make later-model pith helmets. * Hung from hats to keep insects away. (See cork hat) * As a core material in sandwich composite construction. * As the friction lining material of an automatic transmission clutch, as designed in certain mopeds. * Alternative of wood or aluminium in automotive interiors. * Cork slabs are sometimes used by orchid growers as a natural mounting material. * Cork paddles are used by glass blowers to manipulate and shape hot molten glass. * Many racing bicycles have their handlebars wrapped in cork- based tape manufactured in a variety of colors. * To make architectural models. * As a sustainable alternative to traditional substrates in fragrant sachets by Castelbel, a Portuguese brand of luxury home fragrances and bath & body care products. See also * APCOR, Portuguese Cork Association * Bung * Cork Boat (vessel) * Cork borer * Cork cambium * Corkscrew * Corky Notes References * Margarida Pi i Contallé. 2006. Laboratory head in Manuel Serra Hongos y micotoxinas en tapones de corcho. Propuesta de límites micológicos aceptables * Cork production corkfacts.com * Instituto de Promoción del Corcho, Extremadura iprocor.org * Analysis of the life cycle of Cork, Aluminium and Plastic Wine Closures * Henley, Paul, BBC.com (September 18, 2008). "Urging vintners to put a cork in it". * PricewaterhouseCoopers/ECOBILAN (October 2008). Analysis of the life cycle of Cork, Aluminium and Plastic Wine Closures *Cork - Forest in a Bottle. 2008. External links * Cork Quality Council * Book review: To cork or not to cork * Material Properties Data: Cork *Cork Recycling Initiative. 2017. Category:Wine packaging and storage Category:Non-timber forest products Category:Materials Category:Plant anatomy Category:Plant morphology "
"Oa is a fictional planet that lies at the center of the DC Comics universe. Since its inception, Oa has been the planetary citadel of the Guardians of the Universe and the headquarters of the Green Lantern Corps. It first appeared in Green Lantern vol 2 #1, when the Guardians summoned Hal Jordan's "energy duplicate" so they could hear of his origin. History One of the oldest planets in the universe, Oa serves as the home and headquarters for a race of blue-skinned powerful humanoids who have dubbed themselves the Guardians of the Universe. The Guardians administer the Green Lantern Corps, a group of powerful universal police officers equipped by the Guardians with green- colored power rings along with green lanterns with which to charge the rings. According to the story "Heart of a Star" in the Sandman: Endless Nights graphic novel, Oa's star is called Sto-Oa (the Light of Oa) by the children of the planet's inhabitants. Its location has been firmly established by numerous references in Green Lantern comics over the years. It was formerly the center of the universe until the events of Infinite Crisis. Oa's history is not clear; according to some stories, the Guardians originated on a planet called Maltus. These evolved Maltusians later moved to Oa and named themselves Oans. Oa became a convenient base of operations. Other stories had the Oans living there from the beginning. Oa appears primarily as a desert-like, lifeless planet except for the Guardians' city which contains the Corp Central Battery and various halls, living quarters, containment cells and training centers for the Green Lantern Corps. It serves basically as a planet-sized all-in-one police station, training grounds and prison. During a period where the planet had been abandoned and the Central Battery destroyed, Oa spent some time as a patchwork mosaic of cities from other planets similar to Battleworld. This transformation was due to a rogue Guardian driven insane by solitude. When the Guardians returned to Oa, Mosaic was kept as an experiment in inter-galactic cooperative living.Green Lantern Vol.3 #1-17Green Lantern: Mosaic #1-18 Green Lantern Corps member Hal Jordan, the Green Lantern of sector 2814 (which includes Earth), under the influence of the evil entity Parallax, kills all but one of the Guardians and most of the Corps before draining Oa's Central Power Battery of its energy.Green Lantern Vol.3 #50 During the final Zero Hour: Crisis in Time battle with Hal Jordan, Kyle Rayner destroys the planet in an attempt to defeat Hal.Green Lantern Vol.3 #0 In the crossover Green Lantern vs the Silver Surfer, the Marvel Universe villain Thanos attempts to use the rift created by Oa's destruction to unmake the multiverse, after tricking Kyle into powering his equipment with his ring. Thanos is confronted by Parallax and their powers are drained by Kyle and the Surfer, apparently destroying the rift. During the Circle of Fire event, what remains of the planet served as a base of operations for the villain Oblivion. The planet is reformed sometime later by Jordan's old friend and associate Tom "Pie-Face" Kalmaku in the graphic novel Legacy: The Last Will and Testament of Hal Jordan. The Central Power Battery is later recharged and the Guardians resurrected shortly thereafter by Kyle Rayner after he spends some time as the near-omnipotent "Ion", Kyle sacrificing his power to restore the Guardians rather than risk becoming as dangerous as Hal-as-Parallax. After attacks by Superboy-Prime and the Spider Guild, the Guardians fortify Oa by creating a planetwide armor and defensive system to prevent attacks. The full capability of the new systems is still unknown. They were not, however, enough to prevent an assault by the Sinestro Corps, which resulted in the deaths of many Green Lanterns. Afterward, the Corps doubled its defenses. However, a rogue Guardian, Scar, weakened its defenses for an attack from the Black Lantern Corps. After Sinestro killed the Guardians for their "Third Army" plot and their part in Korugar's destruction by the First Lantern Volthoom—although he spared and exiled both Ganthet and Sayd—Hal Jordan became the new leader of the Green Lantern Corps. Shortly after this, the planet was attacked and destroyed by Relic.Green Lantern: New Guardians #24 (December, 2013) The Green Lanterns' new base of operations following the destruction of Oa became Mogo. Following the rebirth of the Guardians of the Universe and the Hal Jordan's victory over Hank Henshaw, it was revealed by Ganthet that the Guardians were rebuilding Oa in secret with the plans to restore it to what it once was,Green Lanterns #57 (October 2018) which is now referred to as "New Oa".The Green Lantern" #1 (November 2018) =Legion of Super-Heroes= It is revealed in Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds that Sodam Yat is the last Guardian of the Universe in the 31st century, while Rond Vidar is the last remaining Green Lantern until he is killed by Superboy-Prime's Legion of Super-Villains. Oa lies mostly in ruins, the power battery cracked, and the rings of the Corps lie in a pile, unable to locate new bearers due to the apparent death of Mogo. Statues of legendary Green Lantern Corps members, including Hal Jordan, Guy Gardner, John Stewart, Kyle Rayner, Arisia, and Ch'p, line the hall where the Guardians formerly met. Green Lanterns Corps Headquarters *Dining Hall: The dining hall can accommodate any Green Lantern's nutritional needs. The executive chef, Greet, specializes in replicating dishes from across the universe. He, unfortunately, has trouble replicating the vast number of foods from Earth. *The Foundry: Forge of the Green Lantern rings and the Green Lantern battery. It is underground about two miles from the Central Power Battery and is guarded by an alien creature. *Hall of Great Service: Housing the massive Book of Oa—the Corps' lawbook and bible—the Hall of Great Service is a library of the stories and deeds of the finest Green Lanterns of all time. Like his father before him, Tomar-Tu recently took the position of archivist superior, filing every tale as it comes in. *Hazard Simulation Facility: All rookie Green Lanterns endure a series of tests to determine their viability in the field. The hazard simulation facility allows for safe, non-lethal training scenarios to be enacted. *Meeting Hall: Lanterns receive their briefings and assignments in the central meeting hall. *Memorial Hall: A memorial erected to Green Lanterns who lost their lives in the line of duty. A Green Lantern named Morro and his pet dratures are its crypt keepers. *New Warriors: A new restaurant owned by Guy Gardner, serving Earth's American fast foods, dinners, and both non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages. *The Sciencells: The sciencells were constructed to contain the most ruthless criminals in the universe. They currently hold such prisoners as Lyssa Drak, Evil Star, Igneous Man, Grayven, and Alexander Nero. Superboy-Prime was the only inmate who wasn't imprisoned in a sciencell. The Guardians and the Green Lantern Corps sent him to a quantum containment field surrounded by a red Sun- Eater and guarded by fifty Green Lanterns. The Green Lantern Voz acts as warden of the sciencells. No inmate has ever been rehabilitated successfully. *Sector Houses: These safe houses allow Lanterns to hold criminals as they await escort back to the Oan sciencells. Limited recreational facilities are available to accommodate Green Lanterns in their travels. Book of Oa After Thomas Kalmaku used Jordan's ring to rebuild Oa, Kyle Rayner used his power as Ion to resurrect the Guardians. The book of Oa is now restored. The Forbidden Chapter of the Book tells the prophecy of the Blackest Night, the final destruction of the Green Lantern Corps at the hands of their greatest enemies as it was told to Abin Sur by the demons of Ysmault. Upon recruitment, a Green Lantern is expected to uphold certain principles of their duty. These principles include: # The protection of life and liberty within the assigned sector. # Following the orders of the Guardians without question. # Noninterference with a planet's culture, political structure, or its population's collective will. # Acting within local laws and obeying the local authority within reason (presumably, the Guardians' orders can overrule this when necessary). # Taking no action against anyone or anything until they are proven to be a threat against life and liberty. # Avoiding the use of equipment, resources or authority of the Corps for personal gain. # Showing respect for and cooperating with other members of the Corps and the Guardians. # Showing respect for life which includes restraint of force unless there is no reasonable alternative. # Giving top priority to the greatest danger in the assigned sector. # Upholding the honor of the Corps. The book of Oa has been designated off-limits after being rewritten by the Guardians of the Universe to include ten new laws. Only the first four have been revealed: # Lethal force is authorized against the Sinestro Corps.Green Lantern (vol. 4) #23 (November 2007) # Lethal force is authorized against all enemies of the Green Lantern Corps.Green Lantern (vol. 4) #28 (April 2008) This law was later repealed by Corps leader John Stewart during the war against the Darkstars, believing that the Green Lanterns are more than about winning battles, and need to focus on winning the love and support of the universe around them to prove their way of standing up for Justice is better than the Darkstars way of executing known criminals.Hal Jordan and the Green Lantern Corps (vol. 1) #48 (July 2018) # Physical relationships and love between Green Lanterns is forbidden within the Corps.Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #31 (February 2009) This law is later repealed and relationships between Green Lanterns are allowedGreen Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #47 (June 2010) following the Blackest Night event. # The Vega System is no longer outside of Green Lantern Corps' jurisdiction.Green Lantern (vol. 4) #40 (May 2009) When the new laws are written, the book is revealed to be written in Interlac, which is the galactic universal language used by the 30th and 31st Century United Planets and Legion of Super-Heroes. To enforce these principles, the Guardians closely monitor the activities of the Lanterns. If they feel a violation of Corps regulations occurred, they will summon the offender to Oa and hold a trial in which the charges are read and the Lantern is allowed to explain their actions. If the Guardians are not satisfied by the explanation, they have a number of disciplinary options which include: *Probation *Personal supervision by the Guardians on Oa *Temporary exile from the Lantern's homeworld *Ritual Trial of Endurance (a Lantern must attempt a dangerous passage through the Anti-Matter Universe) *Expulsion from the Corps *Prime Duty (when Superboy-Prime was an Oan prisoner, guard duty was used for punishment) In other media =Television= * Oa appears in the animated series Justice League. Here it appears as a rocky planet with only a single structure where the Guardians Citadel, the Central Power Battery and Green Lantern Corps are housed. * Oa appears in the Duck Dodgers episode, "The Green Loonturn". Here, Duck Dodgers accidentally gets his hands on a Green Lantern ring and suit, and helps the last members of the Green Lantern Core fight Sinestro. * Oa is one of the main locations seen in Green Lantern: The Animated Series. It is well settled, with massive sky scrapers located every where on the planet. From space the planet is seen to have two rings encircling it, one in the north and one in the south. The massive cities below give a circular appearance on the surface from space. Altogether it gives the planet an appearance of a Green Lantern Battery. =Film= * Oa appears in the animated movie Green Lantern: Emerald Knights. Oa as it appears in Green Lantern the 2011 live-action movie * Oa appears in the 2011 live-action movie Green Lantern. The planet has several points of green light shooting from the surface into space. It has large cities and skyscrapers covering its surface. The Guardians Citadel is one of the tallest structures, with the Guardians chamber atop it. The Central Power Battery is underground in the planet's center, and from there it sends out the points of light seen from space. The Green Lantern Corps has a large meeting chamber near the Central Power Battery. *Oa appears in the animated film Justice League Dark: Apokolips War, in which the planet has been conquered by Darkseid after the Green Lantern Corps were killed. The last surviving Green Lantern is John Stewart, who attempts to recharge his ring using the Central Power Battery but is incinerated (along with the battery itself) when some of Earth's molten core is dumped onto the planet. =Videogames= *Oa is a central hub in the videogame Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham as a main hub, and is the only free roam spot in the game that can be used to drive vehicles and unlock more. References External links * The Green Lantern Corps Web Page Great Book of Oa Category:DC Comics dimensions Category:DC Comics planets Category:Green Lantern de:DC-Universum#Planeten "
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